i^'jSJ^^^iisS&MiiS^^i^.. 





:WT-'': 



>■ 



v?^ *'i 








*Jl ■ 



if i^. .-■„ 




'.' *•, 



' •' ' 



m 

"ft" ' 






4J 






f^-' 



THE PHOSPHATES OF AMERICA. 



WHERE AND HOW THEY OCCUR; HOW THEY ARE 
MINED; AND WHAT THEY COST. 



PR^CTIOA^L TREATISES 

ON THE 

MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID, ACID PHOSPHATE, PHOS- 
PHORIC ACID, AND CONCENTRATED SUPERPHOSPHATES, 
AND SELECTED METHODS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 



BY 

FEAIsrOIS' WYATT, Ph. d. 



SECOND EDITION. 



jn! 231892 I / 

THE SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING CO. 

27 Park Place, New York. 

1891. 



Copyrighted, 1891, by 
The Scientific Publishing Company 







"""^ 


ci. 


N 


C 


• 


^ 


_§ 


^ 




'^ 


> 


o 



^ 



THIS BOOK 

IS 

Dedicated to my Friend 

RICHARD P. ROTIIWELL 

Editor of The Engineering and Mining Journal, 

AS AN HUMBLE TRIBUTE OF MY ESTEEM 
AND HIGH CONSIDERATION. 



PREFACE 



fTHE self-explanatory title of this book enables me to dispense 
with a lengthy introduction, nor, if I were to write one, could 
I add anything to what I have endeavored to say in its images. 

It embodies many facts, figures and suggestions resulting from 
long observation and an extremely varied practical experience ; 
and while these are designed for the exclusive use of specialists, 
I trust that, taken altogether, it will prove highly profitable read- 
ing to all those numerous classes directly or indirectly interested 
in the production, manufacture, sale and consumption of com- 
mercial fertilizers. 

I have endeavored to couch it in common, every-day language, 
and have avoided as far as possible all unnecessary chemical for- 
raulpe and technical terms. In a word, my aim and ambition 
have been to make it intelligible and useful to the ordinary 
careful reader, and if I have partially succeeded in this, I shall 
be more than repaid for the labor it has cost me. 

The Author. 

Laboratory of Industrial Chemistry, 
12 Park Place, New York. 



PREFACE 

TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



TT is seldom that any book, much less a scientific treatise, passes 
into its second edition within a week after the publication of the 
first. That it has been found necessary to bring out a second 
edition of ' ' The Phosphates of America '' thus soon is evidence of the 
deep interest that is now being taken in phosphate mining and the 
manufacture and use of superphosphates for agricultural purposes 
by the people of this country and Europe. Indeed, so great has 
been the demand for the book, that it has been impossible to fill 
all the orders received. 

The Publishers take this opportunity to express their 
gratification that this work has been so much appreciated. 

The Publishers. 

New York, December 1891. 



THE PHOSPHATES OF AMERICA. 



CHAPTER T. 

INTRODUCTORY— GENERALITIES. 

The theory of scientific agriculture is based upon a comi^lete 
knowledge of the nature of soils, plants, animals and manures, and 
it is evident that until these elements are thoroughly understood 
no attempts at improvement or plans for increased production can 
possibly be successful. Is it not curiously illustrative of the gen- 
eral ignorance that very few people know anything of the earth 
they tread or the soil they cultivate, in what way it was formed, or 
of what it is composed? How, then, can they imagine the mighty 
inundations and the terrible upheavals? How conceive anything 
of that gigantic disemboweling of the earth-monster, and of the 
awful torrents of burning lavas which it has vomited forth ? Can 
they realize that our tallest mountains, even those which from their 
height are covered with perpetual snow, were once submerged in 
rolling seas? or that the rocks and cliffs we meet with in our plains 
are nothing more than agglomerated masses of organisms that 
swarmed the waters? This is a seductive topic ; one that might 
readily carry us far beyond the scope of this small work ; and one 
tliat, feeling as we do how utterly impotent we should prove in any 
attempt to do it justice, we would rather not touch upon at all. 

Remembering, however, that Ave are not writing solely for the 
scientific or technical, and that we design to interest the general 
reader, we are bold enough to attempt a brief summary of acquired 
facts in order to make subsequent arguments more forcible and 
clear. 

We believe it to be generally admitted by our geological teachers 



10 The Phosphates of America. 

that when our globe was launched into space it was a liquid some- 
what similar to molten glass, and therefore presented a vastly dif- 
ferent appearance to that with which we are acquainted. When this 
mass began to cool, it probably resembled an immense glass ball, 
the solidified sides of which were uplifted by the bubbling of the 
intensely hot liquid mass within. These solid projections formed 
our mountains, and, passing from the transparent to the opaque, 
they gradually assumed the crystalline form. What is known as 
the earth's crust must have resulted from an extraordinarily for- 
cible action consequent upon the fall of temperature. Certain 
vapors were condensed into acid bodies, and these acids, attacking 
the alkaline crust, combined with its most powerful bases to form 
various salts. Some of these salts — such as sulphate of lime or 
gypsum — were deposited, while others, principally the chlorides, 
remained in solution and formed the seas. The neutralization of 
the stronger and more corrosive acids permitted the weaker car- 
bonic acid to develop its activity, and it is this acid which has con- 
tinued to play the most important part in nature in our own times. 
Held in solution by the running waters, it attacked and dissolved 
the various bases which existed in such large quantities in the moun- 
tains, and deposited them in the form of carbonates in the valleys. 
The process of saturation, or neuti-alization, being entirely accom- 
plished, chemical equilibrium may be said to have become estab- 
lished ; the period of great geological catastrophes, therefore, came 
to an end, and the temperature of the earth gradually sank below 
the boiling-point. A few volcanic disturbances continued, it is 
true, to occasionally convulse it ; there was the upheaval, splitting 
asunder and complete overthrow of mountains, the drying up and 
the division of seas, and the formation of lakes of both fresh and 
salt water, but they became more and more rare as the temperature 
continued to cool. 

The rocks with which we are all acquainted and which have 
grown out of these continuous and still-continuing changes may be 
roughly divided into three groups : 

First, Sandstones. 
Second, Limestones. 
Third, Granite or Gneiss. 

And it is their decomposition, under the combined influence 
of the atmosphere and water, during a long period, that has ulti- 
mately produced fertile soils containing silicates of aluminum. 



The Phosphates of America. 11 

potassium, sodium, magnesium, iron ; phosphates, sulphates and 
chlorides. 

The soil at first resulting from this gradual decomposition 
formed very thin layers, in which only the lower orders of plants 
found sufficient food to fructify, deriving from the air and the rain 
their carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. In the natural 
process of death and decay, these fresh elements of fertility, in vari- 
ous states of combination, were transferred by the plants to the soil, 
which was thus enabled to afford nourishment to a higher vegetation. 
It is the general custom to class arable lands according to the 
nature of their predominating constituents, and thus we allude to 
soils as sandy, clayey and limey. 

Sandy soils are distinguished by their extreme porosity, and are 
frequently in such a fine state of division that in the dry season 
the least wind will displace and scatter them in all directions. In 
such cases they are naturally sterile ; but when they are sufficiently 
moist, they facilitate and encourage the growth of an immense 
variety of plants of the lower order, which, by their eventual 
decomposition or putrefaction, form considerable deposits of that 
valuable substance called humus. 

Such soils are more propitious than any others for the develop- 
ment of plants with very delicate or fine roots, such as barley, rye, 
oats, lucern, lupins, lentils and potatoes ; but they require constant 
attention, and a large and regular quantity of manure, because 
their porosity permits them to absorb such an abundance of oxygen 
that all their organic matter is rapidly burnt up. 

Clayey soils are heavy and compact, and when they contain 
more than fifty per cent, of pure clay are onerous to work, and 
unprofitable to cultivate. It has, however, fortunately been dis- 
covered that the addition to them of so small a quantity as two per 
cent, of burnt lime suffices to so entirely change their nature and 
consistency, by transforming the silicate of alumina into a porous 
silicate and aluminate of lime, that it is now an easy matter in 
districts where lime is cheap and plentiful to overcome this diffi- 
culty. In hot countries or in windy regions or in districts where 
the subsoil is of a very permeable character, good clay lands offer 
great advantages, and although they periodically require the appli- 
cation of large quantities of reconstituents, they possess the faculty 
of retaining all the precious elements supplied to them, and of 
storing them up for the use of successive crops. When they contain 
a proportion of about ten per cent, of carbonate of lime, or chalk, 



13 The Phos])liates of America. 

they are the best of all soils for the extensive growth of such 
important jjlants as wheat, corn, clover, hemp, peas and beans, and 
of such trees as the chestnut and the oak. 

Limey, or purely calcareous, are even lighter than sandy soils, 
and when, as is sometimes the case, they are very white and dry 
they are absolutely barren. 

Such as these are, however, rarely encountered, for w^e generally 
find them mixed with a sufficiency of clay to give them some 
degree of consistency and render them available for ordinary pur- 
poses. Few soils are entirely devoid of lime, owing to the fact 
that all rocks contain it in greater or lesser proportion, and because 
it is transported in immense quantities by waters, in the form of bi- 
carbonate, and deposited. If it were otherwise, or if, in the absence 
of lime, other alkaline substances were not forthcoming, the acid 
principles secreted by all plants could not be saturated, and the 
inevitable result would be decomposition and death. In its pure 
form, however, lime is such an extremely strong base that it is in- 
comj)atible with life, and hence it never exists in the soil unless it 
be combined either with carbonic or silicic or sometimes Avith sul- 
phuric and nitric acids. 

It will be thus seen that the study of geology, even if only 
elementary, enables the agriculturist to more accurately gauge the 
natural resources of his land, and will teach him how to adapt his 
ideas upon drainage, irrigation and ploughing to the surrounding 
circumstances of soil and climate. 

It will also jjrepare his mind for the teachings of chemistry ; 
that science which has done more than any other to improve the 
general condition of mankind, and which will enable him to ob- 
tain the maximum returns from the soil and from plants. 

If production is to be cheap it must be rapid and j^lenteous, yet, 
as we all know, the progress of unaided nature is slow and method- 
ical, and so chemistry, by investigating the laws which govern the 
development of all living things and by carefully observing the 
facts acquired by the practical experience of centuries, has found 
the means by which the farmer may assist and hasten the natural 
processes. The work is, of course, still far from complete, but we 
are at least familiar with the elements essential to plant-growth. 
We know how these elements are distributed, what portion of them 
is or should be contained in our soils, and what soils are most jiro- 
l^itious for different kinds of plants. 

Sixty years ago the science of agriculture was in its infancy. 



The FhosjjJiates of America. 13 

Our grandfathers could not understand why lands once so fertile 
and productive should show signs of apjjroaching exhaustion. The 
light only came to us after we had studied how out-door plants 
live, whence they obtain their food, of Avhat elements that food is 
comiDOsed and how it is conveyed and absorbed into their organ- 
isms. In point of fact, we have discovered that the manner of life in 
jjlants is very similar to the manner of life in animals and man. 
They require certain foods in stated proportions Avhich 2:»ass through 
the process of digestion, they must breathe a certain atmosphere, 
and they are subject to the influences of heat and cold, light and 
darkness. 

The tissues of their bodies, like ours, are composed of carbon, 
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and certain mineral acids and bases, 
such as phosphoric and sulphuric acids, lime potash, magnesia and 
iron. Since, therefore, it is admittedly necessary for man to con- 
stantly absorb a sufficiency of these elements in the form of food, 
it follows that similar food is required by plants for similar jjur- 
poses. 

Having determined the elementary composition of plants, inves- 
tigators directed their attention to the analysis of soils, in order to 
establish comparisons between virgin or uncultivated lands and 
old varieties which had long been tributaries to every kind of 
culture. 

It was found that in the former there is an abundance of most 
of the dominating mineral ingredients discovered in plant organ- 
isms, whereas in the latter they either exist only in minute propor- 
tions or are lackina: altogether. 

This marked a most important stage in our progress. Argument 
is no longer necessary to prove that if agriculture is to continue to 
be the basis of national wealth and prosperity, means must be found 
of restoring to our soils the chief elements yearly taken away from 
them by the crops. These chief elements have been shown to be 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, and that they play the most 
important jiarts in the functions of vegetation, and are the most 
liable to exhaustion, is proved by the following figures, borrowed 
from an address delivered by Prof. H. W. Wiley at the Buf- 
falo meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of 
Science. 

According to this careful and painstaking chemist, the estimated 
mean annual values of some of the agricultural products of the 
United States closely approach the following figures : 



14 



The Phosphates of America. 



Wheat 450,000,000 bushels, valued at 

Maize 1,900,000,000 

Oats 600,000,000 " " 

Barley 60,000,000 " " 

Rye 35,000,000 " " 

Buckwheat 13,000,000 

Potatoes 200,000,000 " 

Butter, milk and cheese " 

Fruits " 

Rice 98,000,000 lbs. at 5 cts. " ' 

Vegetables '• 

Tobacco 483,000,000 lbs. at 9 cts. " 

Cotton 6,500,000 bales (480 lbs.) " 

Wool 300,000,000 lbs. at 15 cts. " 

Hay 45,000,000 tons at $8 " 

Miscellaneous, including flax, flax-seed, hemp, grass- 
seed, garden seeds, wines, nursery products, etc., 
valued at ... « 



$440,000,000 

627,000,000 

168,000,000 

33,000,000 

14,000,000 

7,280,000 

100,000,000 

380,000,000 

100,000,000 

4,900,000 

50,000,000 

42,000,000 

250,000,000 

45,000,000 

360,000,000 



408,945,000 



The mean percentage of ash or mineral matter contained in the- 
most important of these products is as follows : 



Wheat 2.06 

Maize 1.55 

Oats 3.18 

Barley 2.89 

Rye 2.09 

Buckwheat 1.37 

Rice 0.39 

Potatoes 3.77 



Hay 7.24 

Cotton stalks 3.10 

Straw of wheat 5.37 

«' rye 4.79 

" barley 4.80 

oats 4.70 

' ' buckwheat 6.15 

Stalks of maize 4 . 87 



The approximate quantities of mineral matters taken from the 
soil by a single crop of the cereals would thus be : 

GRAIN. 

Wt. in lbs. % Ash. Wt. Ash in lbs. 

Wheat 27,000,000,000 2.06 556,200,000 

Maize 106,400,000,000 1.55 1,649,200,000 

Oats 19,200,000,000 3.18 610,560,000 

Barley 2,880,000,000 2.89 83,232,000 

Rye 1,400,000,000 2.09 29,260,000 

Buckwheat 650,000,000 1.37 8,905,000 

Total 2,937,357,000 

STRAW. 

Wt. in lbs. % Ash. Wt. Ash in lbs. 

Wheat 45,378,000,000 5.37 2,436,798,600 

Maize 212,800,000,000 4.87 10,363,360,000 

Oats 32,000,000,000 4.70 1,504,000,000' 



llie Pliospliates of America. 15 

Wt. in lbs. % Ash. Wt. Ash in lbs. 

Barley 4,800,000,000 4.80 230,400,000 

%e 2,333,000,000 4.79 111,750,700 

Buckwheat 1,083,000,000 6.15 66,604,500 

Total 14,712,913,800 

The total weight of ash in the whole cereal production of the 
country is therefore — 

I^ gi'ain 2,937,357,000 pounds 

In straw 14,712,913,800 " 

Total 17,650,270,800 " 

Since it is our intention to limit the scope of this work to phos- 
phates, we may neglect all other constituents of the above amounts 
of ash, and confine our attention to the 

QUANTITY OF PHOSPHORIC ACID YEARLY RKMOVED FROM THE 
SOIL IN THE UNITED STATES. 

GRAIN. 

^_. , % Phos- Wt. Phosphoric 

Wt. Ash in lbs. phoric Acid. Acid in lbs. 

Wheat 556,200,000 46.98 261,302,760 

Maize 1,649,200,000 45.00 742,140,000 

Oats 610,560,000 23.02 140,550,912 

Barley 83,232,000 32.82 27,316,742 

%e 29,260,000 46.93 13,731,718 

Buckwheat 8,905,000 48.67 4,334,063 

Total 1,189,376,195 

STRAW. 

„„,,.„ % Phos- Wt. Phonphoric 

Wt. Ash m lbs. phoric Acid. Acid in lbs 

Wheat 2,436,798,600 4.81 117,210,012 

Maize 10,363,360,000 12.66 1,312,001,376 

Oats 1,504,000,000 4.69 70,537^600 

Barley 230,400,000 4.48 10,.821,920 

%e 111,750,700 6.46 7,219,095 

Buckwheat. 66,604,500 11.89 7,919,275 

Total 1,525,209,278 

Total weight of the phosphoric acid in grain 1,189,376,195 

Grand total, pounds 2 714 585 473 

The acreage under cultivation for the production of the above 
cereals is estimated officially as follows : 



16 The Plioapliates of America. 

Wheat 40,000,000 acres 

Maize 75,000,000 

Oats 23,000,000 

Barley 3,500,000 

Rye 1,800,000 

Buckwheat 900,000 

Total ■ 143,200,000 

The quantity of phosphoric acid per acre is therefore, for the 
whole cereal crop : 

2,714,585,473 -j- 143,200,000 = 19.0 pounds. 

For the hay crop a similar estimate may be made of the quan- 
tities of plant food removed. 

The mean percentage of ash in the grasses of the United States 
is 7.97 ; for timothy it is 5.88; for clover it is 6.83. The mean 
content of ash may consequently be taken at 6.89 per cent. The 
total weight of hay produced, multiplied by this number, gives 
6,201,000,000 pounds as the total weight of ash in the hay crop of 
the United States. 

For the ash of timothy the percentage of phosphoric acid is 
8.42 ; for red clover, 6.74. The mean percentage of phosphoric 
acid in the ash of timothy and clover is, therefore, 7.56. 

The total weight of phosphoric acid in the hay crop there- 
fore is 

6,201,000,000 X '^•^^ = 468,795,600 pounds. 

The number of acres harvested in the United States is about 
37,500,000, and the quantity of phosphoric acid removed per acre 
is consequently 

468,795,600 -^ 37,500,000 = 12.5 poupds. 



The Phosphates of America. 17 

CHAPTER II. 

PHOSPHATES AND THEIR ASSIMILABILITY. 

Ix the spring-time phosphates are found in noteworthy quanti- 
ties in young organs of plants, especially in the leaves, but the 
quantity gradually diminishes as the plant approaches maturity, 
until when the blossoms appear the jjhosphates are found to have 
entirely quitted the leaves and accumulated in the seeds. This is 
the cause of that peculiar effect, which has long puzzled farmers, 
that fodder cut and brought in after the pei'iod o/' niaturiti/ i^roves 
to be much less nourishing to the cattle than that cut before this 
period has arrived. 

It is worthy of note that in every instance this displacement of 
the jjhosphates is accompanied by an equal displacement of the 
nitrogen, and all those who have made successive analyses of grains 
in different stages of maturity, must have been struck by the regu- 
lar parallel manner in which the quantities of both have progres- 
sively augmented. 

Mr. Corenwinder, alluding to this migration of phosphorus in 
vegetables, remarks : 

"It has long been known that young buds are rich in nitrog- 
enous matters, which are always accompanied by a relatively 
considerable portion of jihosphorus, and there is no doubt that 
these two elements are united in the vegetable kingdom according 
to some mode of combination which is yet a mystery." 

And Mr. Boussingault, writing upon the same subject, says : 

" We perceive a certain constant relation between the propor- 
tions of nitrogen and johosphoric acid contained in foods, those 
being richest in the latter element which contain most nitrogen. 
This would appear to indicate that in the vegetable organization 
phosphates particularly cling to the nitrogenous princij^les, and that 
they follow the latter into the organization of animals." 

The absolute necessity for the presence of phosphoric acid in 
the soil needs no further discussion. It is admitted on all hands 
that in its absence, vegetation, even when abundantly supplied 
with nitrogen and all other necessary elements, must come to a 
standstill. 



18 The Pliosphates of America. 

The form in which it is assimilated is that of phosphate, pro- 
duced by the combination of the acid with various bases. Enor- 
mous deposits of phosphate, chiefly of phosphate of lime, have 
been and doubtless will continue to be discovered in every quar- 
ter of the globe ; and as, besides being so essential to plant life, 
it is the principal constituent of bones, we have here another 
proof that if by some extraoi'dinary phenomenon its source were 
suddenly cut off or exhausted, all vegetable and animal life would 
cease. 

So far back as the year 1698 a celebrated French engineer 
(Vauban), writing in the Dime Royal, said : 

"We have for a long time past been universally complaining of 
the falling off in the quantity and quality of our crops ; our farms 
are no longer giving us the returns we were accustomed to ; yet 
few persons are taking the jjains to examine into the causes of 
this diminution, which will become more and more formidable 
unless proper remedies ai'e discovered and applied." 

This was a warning note, but it was not until after the com- 
mencement of the present century that the English farmers began to 
use crushed bones as a manure, and even then they did so in blind 
ignorance of the principles to which they owed their virtues, as is 
clearly shown by an article published by one of the scientific papers- 
of that day (1830), in which the writer says : 

" We need take into no account the earthy matters or phosphate 
of lime contained in the bones, because as it is indestructible and 
insoluble it cannot serve as a manure, even though it is placed in a 
damp soil with a combination of circumstances analytically stronger 
than any of the processes known to organic chemistry." 

A subsequent writer upon the same subject declares that 
"bones, after having undergone a certain process of natural fer- 
mentation, contain no more than two per cent, of gelatine, and as 
they derive their fertilizing power from this substance only, they 
may be considered as having no value as manure." 

That such opinions as these should have prevailed only fifty 
years ago seems to us all the more preposterous because of the 
gigantic strides which we have made since then and because of the 
singular fact that even the Chinese were better informed than our 
grandfathers, inasmuch as they knew that the fertilizer was a 
mineral principle, and for many centuries have used burnt bones as 
manures. 

Despite the unflagging researches of the best men of the time,. 



The Phosphates of America. 19 

it was not iintil the year 1843 that the Duke of Richmond, after 
an exhaustive series of experiments upon the soil with botli fresh 
and degelatinized bones, came to the conclusion that they owed 
their value not to gelatine or fatty matters, but to their large per- 
centage of 2'>hosphoric acid! The spark thus emitted soon spi-ead 
into a flame, and conclusive experiments shortly after published 
by the illustrious Boussingault set all uncertainty at rest forever 

Numerous species of vegetables were planted in burnt sand, 
which was ascertained by analyses to contain no trace of phos- 
phoric acid. It was, however, made rich in every other element 
of fertility. No development of these plants took place until 
phosphate of lime had been added to the sand, but after this addi- 
tion their groioth became flourishing ! 

Meanwhile large workable deposits of mineral phosphates were 
already known to exist, they having been almost simultaneously 
discovered in their respective countries by Buckland in England 
Berthier in France, and Holmes in America; and in the course of 
a lecture delivered to the British Association in 1845, Professor 
Henslow, describing the Suffolk coprolites, suggested the immense 
value of their application to agriculture. From this time may be 
dated the development of phosphate-mining as an industry, the 
pursuit of which has proved so remunerative to capital and labor. 

The mode of occurrence of the best known deposits of phosphate 
of lime may well be termed eccentric. They have been found in 
rocks of all ages and of nearly every texture. Sometimes they are 
very pure, sometimes their combinations are extremely variable. 
Here they are found in veins, there in pockets, and here again in 
stratified layers or beds in connection with fossilized debris of all 
kinds deposited by the ancient seas. Apart from the deposits of 
the American continent, England, France, Germany, Belgium, 
Spain, Portugal, Norway, Russia and the West Indies, all have 
workable and more or less productive phosphate mines, some idea 
of which may be gathered from the following analyses: 



20 



The Phospliates of America. 





ir- 


OS O 1^ 




.^ 




o 


o o 


•asMoavo 


C7 


O lO iC 




cc 




*c 




(aovaaAv) 


o 


o o7 ic 




00 




CJ 


O IC 

o -* 


KYioaaa 


•~*^ 












- 






■^ 










O OJ 


c 


c 


C 


C: 


o cc 


Cl 


o 


s ^ 


•aoNyH.j 


o o 


t- 


C5 




■^ 










'awKOs 


OJ T-l 


CO IC 


-* 


•- 


o c 


'- 


1—1 


o 00 
o t- 




















1—1 




o 


00 o c 


O OS ^ 


t- Ol 


o t- 


■SBinOHdOO 


T^ 


^00^*00 


Tt 


00 




NTISSnH 


LO 


t- CO '^ 


CO T-l 1- 


c 


CO 


O 05 






(?7 '^ 








T-l 


O LO 




t- CO 


'H- 


CO 




o 






o o 


•saxixvdv 


M< CO 


o: 


CO 




©J 






O CO 


ATAHOiJ 


o o 




5 






lO 






o OI 










•■ 




•^ o 


tr 


cc 


CC 


co -^ cc 


IC 




o cc 


■saxnoHdOo 


Ol. XtH 


a. 


Oi c 


T- 


o t- 


1- 






aoaiaawvo 


T-l W 


CO oi i- 


^ 


CO c 


y- 


o 


O CO 






« 


'^ 








■^ 


o o 
1—1 




= ^ 


<~ 


c; 


c 




X0"8 




00 


O lO 


•ONTnO 

sauoanixaw 


10.9 
11.0 


cc 


00 cc 

0-1 










100.0 
73.4 




•pauiuijaj 
-8pun snoij'BA. 




o 


ir 


cc 


cc 


t- »c c: 


^ 


00 


o CI 


•SBNNaaHV 


07 


Tf 


^ 


oc 


c- 


T-l CC 


o: 


CO 


O CI 


HONBH^ 


la 


03 


o 
■^ 


'^ 


CI 


CJ 1- 


C 


oo 


O IC 






t- I:^ 


O! 


o 


IC 


iC 


o^ I 


.^_ 


^ 


o o 




CQ 1-1 


o: 


c 


T- 


^- 


■r-< t 


t- 






•NYMHaO 












6 1 










1-1 CI 


<r. 


C" 


'd 


iC 




CO 


O IC 






Ol 


'^ 








■^ 


tH 




\n V- 


07 


^ 


IC 


a 


o i 


V 


c> 


o t- 




h- o 


CC 


C: 


IC 


^ J 


t 


lO 


o CO 


•voovHno 


O T-t 


o: 


C 


c- 


c; 


o i: 


F 


d 


O CO 






CO 


IC 




-^- 




-(- 




1—1 




CO CO 


o 


CC 


o 


LC 


o i 


o; 




O IC 




lO o 


o 


c 


cc 


c 


oi J 




T— 1 




•vanHV 


lO o 


CI 


ec 


tc 


cc 


oj £ 


O CJ 


O 05 






cc 


Tt 
















CO CO 


rr. 


c 


c 


iC 


.^ 


o 


a 


O lO 




t- Oi 


cc 


<c 


'^ 


c 


00 


1—1 


o 




•VSSVAVK 


to •<* 




oc 


Ol 


Tt 


00 


T-l 


CO 


o as 






CO 


cc 










■k-^--^ 


- 


O CO 






•asananxHOd 


o o 


«r 


oc 


c 


CC 


CO S I- 


CO 


O LO 




OJ «o 


cc 


c^ 


(T: 




"= S. 


cc 






QNY 


T-I CO 


oi 


t- cc 


^ 


^ 1 


w 


CO 


o o 


HSINYdS 




cc 


'^ 






























t» 


0) 


























-iJ 








, 
















0) 


o3 












































































rt 


a 








a 


















M 








O 
















C 


o 
























Oi 


&I 








f3 






t: 


P 








8 








a 


o 
o 


r 






c 


« 


•3: 


a 


to 

,2 


o a 






Moistui 
Water ( 


C 
1 




e: 
c 

K 


a 
1 


9 5 

3 ^ 


H C 


'o 

tn 
C 
1— t 


* 



The PliospJiates of America. 21 

Very large deposits of phosphates of alumina and iron have 
been discovered in the islands of Redonda and Alta Vela, and 
were at first mistaken and shipped in large quantities f or jjhosjihate 
of lime. Upon comjjlete analysis in London, however, their true 
nature was discovered, and being quite unsuitable for the manu- 
facture of superjjhosphate, they Avere denounced by leading agri- 
cultural chemists as valueless for fertilizer purposes. The cargoes 
were consequently refused by the consignees and thrown upon the 
market at very low prices ; and so great was the prejudice against 
them that a long time elapsed before they met with any purchas- 
ers. The detailed composition of these phosphates is shown in 
the following analysis, made by us from a fair and well-selected 
sample : 

Moisture „... 12.36 

Water of combination , o 4.13 

* Phosphoric acid 30.22 

Lime 4.16 

Magnesia traces 

Oxide of iron 7. 04 

Ahimina 24.00 

Carbonic acid None 

Sulphuric acid " 

Fluorine traces 

Insoluble sandy matter 18.09 



100.00 
* Equal to 65.87 per cent, of tribaslc phosphate of lime. 

It appears to have been forgotten, overlooked, or ignored, by the 
opponents of these phosphates that the ijhosphoric acid in the soil 
invariably exists in the form of phosphates of iron and alumina. 
The so-called experts had probably not then learned what they are 
now compelled to admit, that although some difficulty may attend 
their decomi^osition in the factory or their transformation into 
chemical fertilizers, these phosphates are extremely valuable in the 
raw state — if very finely ground — as a direct manure. 

Nor is this a matter of any personal opinion or prejudice, for as 
we and others have frequently shown, the iron and alumina in the 
soils exercise an immediate transforming action ujjon the j^hosphate 
of lime introduced into them in both natural and artificial forms. 

Any one can demonstrate this transformation by adding either 
peroxide of iron or alumina, or both, to a solution of lime phos- 
phates in water charged with carbonic-acid gas (ordinary car- 



22 The Phosphates of America. 

"bonated water at high pressui'e), when in a very short time all 
phosphoric acid will have disappeared from the solution and will 
be found in the deposit as phosphate of iron and alumina. 

If the chemists alluded to had confined their statements to the 
fact that phosphates of iron and alumina were not advantageous 
materials for the manure manufacturer, they Avould have been per- 
fectly correct ; but they took on themselves a vast resjionsibility 
when they declared them to be useless as fertilizers, for of all 
questions, that as to the form in which jjhosphoric acid offers the 
best all-round advantage to the practical farmer is the most subtle 
and most delicate. 

If we accept the generally-admitted and rational theory that no 
element can penetrate into the interior of a plant unless it be in so- 
lution, it naturally follows that j)reference will be invariably given 
to those commercial phosphates which are most readily subject to 
dissociation ; and this will entirely dej^end ujjon two conditions : 

[a) Their own degree of aggregation. 

{h) The nature and composition of the soil in which they are 
employed. 

The first thing to be obtained is undoubtedly a fineness of 
pulverization which will so divide the molecules as to render them 
easily decomposable by the natural action of the elements con- 
tained in the ground. Here we touch at once the real source of 
our difficulty, for in the matter of pulverization only partial suc- 
cess has so far been achieved by any sufficiently cheap mechanical 
means, and we are not very much further forward now than we 
were in 18.57, when Liebig recognized the difficulty and jjroposed, 
in order to solve it, to chemically perform the disintegration by 
manufacturing sujierphosphates. 

From the standpoint of disintegration this method of Liebig's 
has been entirely satisfactory, and has enabled agriculture to raj)- 
idly obtain results from the use of phosphoric acid which would 
otherwise have been impossible. From a chemical point of view, 
however, the whole theory fails. We have seen that superphos- 
phates are only soluble in water so long as the sulphuric acid with 
which they have been manufactured retains its ascendency, and 
that when they reach the soil, especially where carbonates are in 
abundance, the sulphuric acid is at once overpowered, and the jjhos- 
phoric acid, instead of remaining combined with one molecule of 
lime and two molecules of water, at once undergoes reversion. To 
put it plainly, the issue revolves upon a matter of time and of 



The Phosphates of America. 23 

money. The farmer buys a ton of raw phosphates, ground as finely 
as possible and containing, let us say, twenty-five per cent, of phos- 
phoric acid, for $10. If his land be tolerably acid he will get a 
rapid return, but if it be not, the phosj)hate will not decompose, and 
he will have to wait perhaps several years before obtaining any ap- 
preciable results for his outlay. On the other hand, he buys a 
ton of superphosphates, containing only fourteen per cent, of j^hos- 
phoric acid, for |20, and applying it to a phosphate-barren soil, 
produces the desired results on his very next crop. Hence it is 
apparent that the 2:)hosphoric acid of the latter is more readily as- 
similable than that of the former case ; and this assimilability can 
only be due to its absolute state of division, which enables the 
phosphate to come into contact with the acid sa]) of a greater num- 
ber of root hairs and thus to be dissolved and absorbed by the 
plant. AVe therefore repeat, that to define with scientific accuracy 
the exact merit or intrinsic value of any specific phosphate is a 
matter of very serious difiiculty ; since besides that of its own phys- 
ical condition, so much depends upon the nature and composition 
of the soil in which it is to be employed. 

Dr. Charles Graham, of University College, London, was one of 
the first to realize the facts we have noted, and writing upon the sub- 
ject some ten years ago, said that " the vitriolating process, whereby 
soluble phosphate is formed, was of value where nothing but bones 
was employed, since it gave agriculture a convenient means of 
distributing over the land an easily soluble substance in the place 
of the pieces of bone previously used. With coprolites the same 
thing was supposed to hold, and as years rolled on acid was more 
and more used in the preparation of phosphatic materials, until at 
last these have become rather vitriol-carriers to the profit of the 
manure manufactiirer than to the benefit of agriculture. Analyti- 
cal chemists attached so high a value to the soluble phosphates 
that the factor 30 became with many the multiplier in calculating 
the commercial value from the centesimal composition of the 
sujjerjDhosphates. Some, indeed, went beyond this ; and in time 
analytical chemists came to think of soluble phosphates as the only 
test of vitriolated phosphate minerals — the insoluble being regarded 
as of little or no use." 

The same subject received much attention at the International 
Congress of the Directors of Agricultural Experimental Stations, 
held in Paris in June, 1881, and the result was a general approval 
of the efiicacy of the undissolved forms. 



24 The Phosphates of America. 

It appears to be established by the record of this congress that 
French and German agricultural chemists are now in accord in re- 
gard to the comparative value of soluble and j^'i'^dj^itated phos- 
phates {i.e., those which had once been soluble but have returned 
to the insoluble state in fine division), French chemists having 
held for some time that they should be on an equal footing. They 
also assented to the value of raw ground phosphate of lime, and 
declared that 

" The congress is of opinion that in reports of analyses the 
directors of stations should state the solubility of phosphates by 
the exjjressions ' phosphoric acid soluble in cold citrate of ammonia ' 
or ' soluble in water,' and not that of ' assimilable phosj^horic acid ; ' 
the Congress believing that to apply the term assimilable to the 
phosphate soluble in the citrate would be to class implicitly and 
necessarily in the category of substances not assimilable, the i^hos- 
phates which are evidently soluble in the soil, such as those in 
bone ash, guano, bone powder, farm-yard manure and fossil phos- 
phates." 

There is probably not a single one of our agricultural experi- 
ment stations in which the assimilability of raw mineral phos- 
phates finely ground has not been the object of intelligent study, 
but so far as we have been able to ascertain by diligent inquiry up 
to date, the results have vai'ied, as we have already premised, in 
accordance with the kind of j^hosphate used and the nature of the 
soil into which they were introduced. Nothing of any serious mo- 
ment has in fact occurred to modify the conclusions formulated in 
1857 by the well-known Frenchman, De Molon, who, reporting on 
a very extensive series of trials of ground raw coprolite in many 
different departments of France, said that 

1. It might be used with advantage in clayey, schistous, grani- 
tic and sandy soils rich in organic matter. 

2. If these soils were deficient in organic matter or had long 
been under cultivation, it might still be used in combination with 
animal manure. 

3. It may not be used with advantage in chalky or limestone 
soils. 

Here, as it strikes us, is a fairly representative case where an 
intelligent discrimination is demanded of the farmer, and where he 
must realize that the term soluble as applied to phosphate fertilizers 
is an entirely relative one. In one portion of his lands he may use 
raw phosphates, and they will prove to be soluble and produce 



The FliosjjJiates of America. 25 

excellent results ; in another portion, owing to different constitution 
of the soil, they will remain insoluble and the result will be nil. 

In England and in some parts of Germany it is still the cus- 
tom, as we shall show later on, to base the commercial value of a 
' manufactured phosphatic material almost entirely upon its per- 
centage of phosphoric acid soluble in cold water, and to allow 
little or nothing for that which may exist in the "reverted" or 
water-insoluble form. As shown by our experiments and demon- 
strated by our practice in this country, however, the latter is 
entirely assimilable by plants, and should therefore have a com- 
mercial value approximately equal to that of the water-soluble 
phosf)hate. 

Neither English nor German chemists worthy of that name 
attempt to deny this fact, but they appear to be in advance of the 
philosophy of their lay contemporaries and have not yet acquired 
sufficient jjower to stamp out prejudice and imposition. 

All newly discovered truths, when first communicated to an 
unprepai'ed society, are first denounced and then put aside and for- 
gotten by the vast majority ; but by and by, when a generation or 
two have passed away, we see those very truths, so long considered 
as without the pale of human jjossibilities, insensibly come to be 
looked upon as commonplaces which even the dullest intellects 
wonder how we could ever have denied. 

Men may come and men may go, but science remains behind. 
It sustains the shock of empires, outlives the struggles of rival 
theories and creeds, and, built upon a rock, must stand forever. 

How, then, can we exjject the farmers to perpetually remain in 
ignorance or darkness on this question, when we know that they 
are becoming less and less able to restore to their soils, in any other 
form than that of phosphate of lime the phosphox-ic acid taken 
from them year by year with their crops ? 

Nothing can stem the demand for artificial manures ; it will go 
on increasing with such steadiness and rapidity that the visible 
sources of supply will soon become inadequate. Especially is this 
true of phosphates of lime, and the recognition of this fact by 
those engaged in the fertilizer industry explains the eagerness with 
which fresh deposits of the material are being sought for all the 
world over. 

The vast workable deposits of the American continent are just 
at this moment the centres of attraction, and it will therefore be 
interesting to a large section of the public to know something 



26 Tlie Phosphates of America. 

about the mode of their occurrence, how they are mined, handled, 
prepared for the market, and what they cost. All this informa- 
tion we shall endeavor to convey in as brief a manner as may be 
consistent with lucidity, and we shall add to it a practical descrip- 
tion of the manufacture of sulphuric acid, superphosphates and 
"high grade supers," and shall give a general outline of those 
methods of analyses shown bj'^ our long and varied experience to 
be best suited to each class of product. 

At the present time there is a great and regrettable divergency 
in the results of phosphate analyses made by different chemists. 
To the uninitiated this is an unaccountable fact, to be explained 
only by a very excusable and popular conclusion, that analytical 
chemistry is not a reliable or exact science, and that it cannot j^ro- 
duce in practice what it expresses by equation. Why, it is asked, 
should the chemist in the South— who is j^erfectly conscientious 
and who has no interest to deceive — differ materially in his find- 
ings from a chemist equally but no more honest and trustworthy 
working at the East or North ? This is a consistent question, and 
it demands a j^rompt solution. 

Nothing could cast a greater aspersion on the highest of j^rofes- 
sions than this state of affairs, and yet nothing on earth could be 
more easily and perfectly remedied. All that is necessary is for chem- 
ists to come together and agree upon certain methods, and to invite 
jDurchasers and sellers of phosphates and manures to regulate their 
settlements on a jjreso'ibed basis. In this manner all divergency 
of results should disappear, and, all other conditions being equal, 
any further discrepancies would be attributable only to incompe- 
tency or bad faith. The hand, of course, is not always steady, nor 
is the eye always accurate, and while we are liable to physical 
defects and weaknesses, we shall never be free from mistakes ; but 
it is nevertheless a fact which has forced itself upon all thinking 
men, that uniformity in manipulation is the prime factor in the 
attainment of uniform results, and nowhere is such uniformity a 
■sine qua non as in the laboratory. 



The Phosphates of America. 27 



CHAPTER III. 

THE PHOSPHATES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

The greatest of our geologists have agreed upon dividing the 
•earth's crust into four classes or periods, which they have named 
respectively the Archcean, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, 
and the phosphates which we are now to describe occur in the 
rocks of the first of these divisions, in that portion of them known 
as the Gneiss formation or Laurentian period. 

These rocks are made up almost entirely of pyroxene, calcite, 
hornblende, mica, fluor-spar, quartz and orthoclase, and are more 
or less intermixed at various points with apatite, pyrites, graphite, 
garnet, epidate, idocrase, tourmaline, titanite, zircon, opal, calce- 
dony, albite, scapolite, wilsonite, steatite, chlorite, prehnite, chaba- 
site, galena, sphalerite, molybdenite, etc. 

The two districts in Canada in which apatite has been thus far 
found to exist in workable quantities are Ottawa County, in the 
province of Quebec, and Leeds, Lanark, Frontenac, Addington and 
Renfrew Counties, in the Province of Ontario. The latter district, 
therefore, covers a much larger area than the former, but on the 
other hand the country is much lower, the rocks more hornblendic 
and the apatite much more "pockety" and scattered. In both dis- 
tricts the Laurentian rocks form immense belts, which traverse the 
country for many miles wath a N. E. and S. W. trend, and which, 
according to Dana, Hunt and other investigators, extend downward 
to a depth of at least twenty-five or thirty thousand feet. There 
is, as may be readily inferred, a great variability in their composi- 
tion. Sometimes they are entirely granitic gneiss, hornblendic 
gneiss, rust-colored gneiss and brownish quartz ; at others they 
are made up of pyroxene, feldspar, calcite, mica, apatite, and j^y- 
rites. While there are undoubtedly many spots in which the apa- 
tite would appear to occur in true veins of extreme purity, we 
have found that the general formation of the fissure material is 
that of a series of conglomerates. In other words, the gigan- 
tic lodes are a mixture in whicn the predominance alternates between 
pure apatite and pyroxenite or mica, or feldspar, or, in fact, any 
other of the minerals already enumerated. 



28 



The PJiospJiafes of America. 



The lodes themselves, however, are nevertheless very strongly 
defined, and there can be no doubt at all as to their continuity in 
depth. In the province of Quebec we have followed them over 
the townships of Hull, Templeton, Buckingham, Wakefield, Port- 
land, Derry, Denholm, Bowman and many others, farther north 
and west, and they everywhere exhibit the same characteristics. 
Sometimes they contain no apatite ; at others it is only present 
in rare disseminated crystals. Sometimes they contain it in the 
proportion of from ten to fifteen •^ev cent, of their entire mass 
over a very large area. Sometimes, again, it displaces the other 
rocks altogether, and develops into enormous " bonanzas," in which 
scarcely any impurities are found. 

The principal phosphate mines of Canada have been located 
on those portions of the pyroxenite belt in which, at the surf- 
ace, the apatite has shown signs of predominating, and it is 
on record that, so far as explored, when these surface "shows" 
exist in association with feldspar, mica or pyrites, the apatite has 
always continued downward with variable regularity through the 
entire formation. By far the greater part of the phosphate rained 
of late years has been obtained in the Quebec district, chiefly 
from that portion of Ottawa County through which flows the 
Lievres River. This fact is demonstrable by a reference to the 
following table, compiled with great care from ofiicial data. 



COMPANIES NOW WORKING APATITE MINES IN CANADA. 



NAME OP COMPANY. 


CAPITAL. 


DISTRICT 
WHERE WORKING. 


DAILY 

AVERAGE 

OF MEN 

EMPLOYED 


Anglo-Canadian Phosphate Co., L'd 
Anglo-Continental GuanoWorks Co 

Canadian Phosphate Company 

Central Lake Mining Co 

Dominion Phosphate and Mining 
Co 


$500,000 
800,000 

550,000 
Private cap- 
italists. 

125,000 

200,000 

30,000 
60,000 
50,000 
25,000 

Private cap- 
italists. 


Perth, Ontario. 
Lievres River, 
Quebec. 

11 (( 
a n 

Templeton, 

Quebec. 

Kingston, Ont. 

Lievres River, 
Quebec. 


45 

100 

150 
20 

50 

50 

100 
75 
30 

80 1 
15 


Dominion Phosphate Co., L'd, of 
London 

East Templeton District Phosphate 
Mining Syndicate 


Foxton Mining Company, L'd 

Frontenac Phosphate Company 

Kingston Mining Co 


Little Rapids Mining Co 





Tke Phosphates of America. 



29 



Companies now working- Apatite mines in Canada. — Continued. 



NAME OF COMPANY. 



MacLaurin Phosphate Mining Syn 

dicate 

Ottawa Mining Co , 

The General Phosphate Corporation 

L'd 

Phosphate of Lime Co , L'd 

Sydenham Mica and Mining Co . . . 



DISTRICT 
WHERE WORKING. 



DAILY 
AVERAGE 

OF MEN 
EMPLOYED 



100,000 
Private cap- 
italists. 

1,000,000 
250,000 
350,000 



Templeton, 
Quebec. 
Lievres River, 
Quebec. 



Kingston, Ont, 



50 
25 



250 

200 

25 



It is affirmed by some excellent authorities that pyroxene rock 
is never found distinctly bedded, though occasionally a series of 
parallel lines can be traced through it, which, while possibly the 
remains of stratification, are probably often joint j^lanes. Some- 
times, when the pyroxenite has been weathered, apparent signs of 
bedding are brought out, which are often parallel to the bedding 
of the country-rock. Thus at Bob's Lake mine, in Frontenac 
County, a rich green pyroxenite occurs which exhibits this struc- 
ture. For 10 feet down from the surface this apparent bedding 
can be distinguished. It gradually grows fainter, until it disap- 
pears in the massive pyroxenite below. A similar phenomenon has 
been observed at the Emerald mine, Buckingham Townshiji, 
Ottawa County, Quebec, and at several other places. 

The pyroxene occurs in several different forms. Sometimes it 
is massive, of a light or dark green color, and opaque or translu- 
cent ; at other times it is granular and easily crumbled. Occasion- 
ally it occurs in a distinctly crystalline form, the crystals being in 
color of different shades of a dull green, generally opaque or 
translucent, but sometimes, though rarely, almost transparent. 
The massive variety is the most common and composes the greater 
part of the pyroxenites found in the phosphate districts. 

The associated feldspar is generally a ciystalline orthoclase, 
varying in color from white to pink and lilac, but occasionally it 
occurs as a whitish-brown finel}'- crystalline rock. The trap is of 
the dark, almost black, variety. The apatite itself occurs, as we have 
already explained, in a very capricious manner and in a very great 
variety of forms. 

The first Canadian phosphate-mining was done in the township 
of North Burgess, in Lanark County, and about the year 1863 
extensive investments were made in lands in that township, near 
the Rideau Canal, as high as -$300 per acre having in some cases 



30 Tlie Phosphates of America. 

been paid. In 1872 mining was begun on the Lievres River and 
gradually increased until 1880, when English and American capi- 
talists embarked in the industry and jjrosecuted work on a large 
scale with the aid of steam machinery. Previous to this time 
hand labor only was employed and a good pi'oportion of the output 
was obtained by farmers, who discovered the mineral on their 
lands and worked at it in a desultory manner as attention to their 
farm duties permitted. 

The result of such a method was, of course, that the whole of 
a property was soon cut up with small j^its and trenches, rarely 
exceeding 20 feet in dejjth, and often interfering considerably 
with later and larger mining operations, and it was not until well- 
organized companies, directed by efficient engineers, with steel 
drills, hoists, j^^iJTipf^} etc., came into the field, that the exploita- 
tion proceeded on a sound basis. It would be impossible and 
at the same time uninteresting to attempt a detailed description 
of all the mines now in o23eration, and we have concluded to 
content ourselves by selecting one of the best as a typical 
example. 

For this purpose we will describe the mode of occurrence, 
method of working, possibilities of production and qualities of i^rod- 
uct at the North Star Mhte, which is situated on the east bank 
of the Lievres River, in the township of Portland, and which in 
our o23inion is one of the very few enterprises of its kind which 
have been conducted on true mining principles. It is perhajDS the 
only one in which proper development work has been undertaken 
with a view rather to lasting profits than immediate and temporary 
gains. The managei-s have made themselves acquainted with and 
have thoroughly understood the peculiar nature of the formation 
with which they have had to deal. They have consequently 
divided their work from the commencement of their oj^erations 
into two distinct j)hases, exploration and exploitation. 

The first has consisted in prospecting the lode or belt, uncover- 
ing its surface over the entire property, to prove the continued 
presence of the ajDatite, and then in opening up pits or quarries to 
a sufficient depth to demonstrate the importance, dimensions and 
trend of the deposit. 

The second has consisted in simply following up the indications 
thus laid bare, by sinking shafts upon the vein, in conformity with 
the strike and dip of the phosphate. 

The results of this policy have been manifold. Scientifically 
they have taught us all we now know concerning the mode of oc- 







'TK 



V 



X-v 



■'ym 





'\ % 


0) a 


V 


es 


> 


^- Z 3 


.j! 


E-MINIXG 
f stfam d 
ion of abo 
awa Co. 


? 4 

'1 


PATIT 
leans o 
roport 
er, Ott 




5. bS.« 



c g 



The Phos2)hates of America. 31 

currence and the continuity in depth of Canadian apatites. In- 
dustrially they have secured to the company some very consider- 
able reserves of phosj^hate, which are now in sight and ready for 
extraction. 

The entire property consists of 200 acres, and it is traversed 
throughout its length by the pyroxene belt or band, which con- 
tains, besides the apatite, a large number of the characteristic 
minerals and has an average width of some 250 feet. The pyrox- 
ene is occasionally intermixed at the surface with bowlders of 
granite or gneiss. The trend of the belt or vein is in the usual 
northeasterly and southwesterly direction, and at inteiwals of 
from 50 to 75 feet it is intersected from east to Avest by faults, or 
chutes, which dip to the south at an angle of from 45° to 60°, and 
as these all contain an abundance of apatite they have been chosen 
as the fitting points for sinking shafts and pits. 

Taking the southern boundary as a point of departure, the belt 
of phosphate-bearing matter has been jJi'ospected and jjroved by 
openings i^i'actised at intervals of from 25 to 50 feet. 

Proceeding along the vein towards the north for about 500 feet, 
we reach the first important opening sunk upon it and known as 

The Office Pit, a species of quarry 150 feet in length by 40 in 
width and about 35 feet deep. Here we find the usual masses of 
characteristic conglomerates, mica, feldspar and apatite alternating 
in jjredominance or heterogeneously mixed up together. In the 
west-end corner of the quarry a small pit, some 6 feet square, has 
been sunk upon a vein of apatite and has shown the same features 
to continue in dejDth. From a careful measurement and comparison 
of the entire matter in place, the proportion of jjure apatite in this 
portion of the lode is estimated at eight per cent, of the total ma- 
terial to be removed. In other words, for every 100 tons of rock 
removed 8 tons of apatite can be secured. 

The next in line, at a distance of 100 feet, is the 

Alice Pit JVo. 1, an opening 25 x 15 and 10 feet deep. Here, 
in exactly the same formation as the j^receding, there is a very fine 
vein of pure apatite, about 12 feet wide, running down from the 
surface with the usual dip to the south. 

Following the belt for another 60 feet we come to 

Alice Pit JVo. 2, which has been opened up for a depth of 10 
feet on a fault in the vein 30 feet long by 15 feet Avide. Several 
small veins, or stringers, of apatite imbedded in the usual con- 
glomerate have merged into one, which has gradually widened 
out until at the bottom it has attained about 5 feet. This is an 



32 The Phosphates of America. 

excellent prospect, with all the appearance of developing into a 
bonanza when brought into further working order. 

Passing over several other openings and faults of similar char- 
acter for about 250 feet, we come to 

Pit JVb. 3, which is now being developed and got into shape for 
exploitation. It has been sunk in solid vein matter and upon the 
dip of the chute to a depth of about 100 feet and still retains the 
appearance of an open quarry. Down its southwest side there 
run three well-defined veins of apatite, each of them occasionally 
interspersed with or hidden from sight by bowlders of feldspar, 
mica, calcite and pyroxene. 

The next opening upon the belt is at a distance of only 50 feet 
and is known as 

Shaft JVb. 1. It is sunk on the dip of the vein at an average 
angle of about 55° and is now about 600 feet deep. Its progress 
has been watched with the greatest interest by all who are in any 
way connected with or concerned in the apatite-raining industry, 
and it has served to prove beyond contestation that the sought-for 
material is not confined to a mere superficial stratum, but that it 
continues to accompany the other minerals with which it is so in- 
timately associated, in exactly the same manner, in depth as at the 
surface. The same mixture of rocks, the same conglomerates, 
the same alternating preponderances — these are the history of the 
shaft. 

Small veins or strings of apatite led into enormous pockets or 
bonanzas, yielding many thousand tons of pure j^hosphate ; these, 
in course of time, gradually pinched out and were replaced by 
pyroxene, feldspar or mica, through which the veins of apatite 
were followed until they again merged into a preponderating 
mass. 

At the time of our visit to the mine the shaft contained a great 
deal of water, which had drained in from the melting of the last 
winter's snow, but the managers were good enough to have the 
water pumped out in order to facilitate our inspection, and we 
were thus able to descend in it to within 50 feet of the bottom. 
After careful inspection, we became satisfied that there are very 
large reserves of ajiatite in the shaft, especially as the bottom 
is neared, and that it can readily be mined and brought to the 
surface. 

Under the peculiar circumstances of the geological formation it 
was imj)ossible to sink this shaft with any great degree of regu- 



The Phosphates of America. 



33 



larity. The run of the apatite is a capricious one, and was found 
to shift about from side to side and take the place of other rocks 
in a manner that baffled all calculations. AVe may, perhaps, better 
convey our meaning if we liken its occurrence to a long string of 
sausages, of very irregular shape and divided by very irregular 
lengths of skin, say, for instance, thus : 




These pockets were of course worked out as they occurred, 
with the result that the interior of the shaft now presents the ap- 
pearance of a series of immense caverns alternating with narrow 
passages or tunnels. So far as it was possible to judge from the 
present appearance of the shaft and of the dumps by which it is 
surrounded, we estimated the amount of rock material already re- 
moved from it at about 160,000 tons and the apatite at about 
twelve per cent, of that total. 

At a distance of 100 feet further along the belt we reach 
The Shaft JVo. 2, a reproduction in the main of the No. 1 
shaft already described. It has been carried down on the dip of the 
vein at an angle of 50° to 55° S. with a tramway which hugs the 
foot-wall. The width and height of the shaft range from 50 
to 120 feet wide and from 16 to 75 feet high, all in solid vein 
matter between well-defined walls of granitic gneiss, with phos- 
phate overhead and underfoot. The apatite in the vein has fre- 
quently develojied into large bonanza chambers or pockets, and 
there is every promise of a continuation of this phenomenon as 



34 The Pliospliates of America. 

the pit goes down, since the bottom and sides of it now consist 
almost entirely of massive green phosphate. From careful meas- 
urements in the excavation, the quantity of total material re- 
moved from this shaft was computed at about 40,000 tons and 
the proportion of apatite at about twelve per cent, of the mass. 
The average daily number of men employed in sinking this shaft 
and dealing with the ore has been as follows : 

Twenty-five miners and strikers with 1 steam drill underground ; 
5 men at the surface unloading the cars ; 25 men and boys in the 
cobbing-house, engine-house and blacksmith's shop ; total, 55 men 
and boys. The average wages paid to these — grouped together — 
has been |1 per capita and per day. 

The average cost of powder and steam and the wear and tear of 
drills, engines, hoists, tools and other plant we estimate from prac- 
tical experience at 25 cents per ton of rock removed. 

From these data it is easy for us to compute the cost of the 
phosphate per ton. 

55 men and boys at $1 per day for 300 days $16,500 

40,000 tons of rock removed at 25 cents per tea for plant 
and wear and tear 10,000 

Total cost of, say, 5,000 tons clean phosphate. . $26,500 
or, say, $5.60 per ton at the mine. 

The width of the pyroxene belt in the neighborhood of this 
shaft is about 300 feet, and saving that in some places there is a 
considerable intermixture of huge granitic bowlders, there is no 
change in its predominating characteristics over the remainder of 
the property. 

The equipment necessary to the proper working of an apatite 
mine must include : 

One or two good boilers of about 50 H. P. each. 
One or two double drill compressors. 
One or two hoisting engines of about 20 H. P. each. 
Three or four machine drills fully equipped. 
All necessary fittings and pipe for compressors. 
A first-class plunger pump. 
A first-class double forcing pump. 

A line of transport wagons of about 2 tons each capacity. 
A line of transport sleighs, for winter, of about 2 tons each capacity.. 
A commodious blacksmith and carpenter shop, well provided with 
all kinds of tools. 

A cobbing-house fully equipped. 







\ 



The FJiosphates of America. 35 

A cooking and boarding house to accommodate, say, 250 men. 
A sleeping-house to accommodate, say, 350 men. 
A large warehouse for stores of all kinds. 
Offices and dwelling for a local superintendent. 

It has already been explained that the form in which the phos- 
phate occurs in the Canadian mines is that of a hexagonal crystal- 
line mass of fluor-ajjatite. Sometimes it is extremely compact ; 
at others it is coarse and granular. It has a hardness of 5 and a 
mean specific gravity of 3.20, and is generally so friable as to fall 
to pieces if struck with the pick. It varies in color from green to 
blue, red, brown or yellow, according to the greater or lesser pro- 
portions of impurities with which it is contaminated. 

A series of our analyses made from average samples taken from 
many of the largest working mines may be regarded as very fairly 
representative of the average chemical composition of the ma- 
terial. 

COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL SAMPLES OP CANADIAN APATITE. 

1st Qual. id Qual. 3d Qual. 

Phosphate of lime 88.20 78.65 66.22 

Carbonate of lime 4.13 8.05 9.20 

Fluoride of lime 3.10 3.04 2.97 

Alumina and iron oxides 0.70 1.03 1.37 

Magnesia 0.20 0.31 0.47 

Insoluble siliceous matter 3.67 8.92 19.77 

100.00 100.00 100.00 

What is the origin of these remarkable phosphates is a question 
that has been, and still continues to be, the cause of much contro- 
versy. 

Sir William Dawson, in a paper read before the Natural Histor- 
ical Society, Montreal, 1878, "On the Phosphates of the Laurentian 
and Cambrian of Canada," discusses the probability of animal origin, 
and holds that there are certain considerations which point in this 
direction. Among these are the presence of the iron ores, the 
graphite, and of Eozoon Canadense, which he, with others, holds to 
represent the earliest known forms of life. He further says that 
the possibility of the animal origin of this phosphate is strengthened 
by the presence of phosphatic matter in the crusts and skeletons of 
fossils of primordial age, " giving a presumption that in the still 
earlier Laurentian a similar preference for phosphatic matter may 
have existed and perhaps may have extended to still lower forms, 
of life." 



36 The Pliosphates of America. 

Others, again, have contended that it must have been ejected 
from the earth's interior by volcanic action, and prominent among 
these is the present Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, 
A. R. C. Selwyn, who says : 

"My own examinations of the Canadian apatite deposits (veins, 
etc.) have led me to a conclusion respecting their origin correspond- 
ing with that of the Norwegian geologists. I hold that there is 
absolutely no evidence whatever of the organic origin of the apatite, 
or that the deposits have resulted from ordinary mechanical sedi- 
mentation processes. They are clearly connected, for the most part, 
with the basic eruptions of Archaean date." 

This view is also taken by Mr. Eugene Coste, who, in his report 
on the "Mining and Mineral Statistics of Canada for 1887," con- 
cludes an article on " The Iron Ores and Phosphate Deposits (?) in 
the Archaean Rocks " by saying : 

" It is only natural that we should conclude, as many other 
geologists have done before, that the iron ore and j^hosphate to be 
found in our Archaean rocks are the result of emanations which 
have accompanied or immediately followed the intrusions through 
these rocks of many varied kinds of igneous rocks which are no 
doubt the equivalent of the volcanic rocks of to-day. These de- 
posits, then, are of a deep-seated origin, and consequently the fears 
entertained, 2:)i"incipally by our phosphate miners, that their deposits 
are mere surface pockets, are not well founded. These fears are 
no doubt 23artly the result of the belief which has been somewhat 
prevalent that the apatite in them was the metamorphic equivalent 
of the phosphate nodules of younger formations, and it may be also 
that they have resulted from the fact that the apatite is irregularly 
distributed in these deposits and is often suddenly rej^laced by rock. 
But notwithstanding this, when the deposits are j^roperly under- 
stood to be, as we hold they are, igneous dykes and veins accom- 
panying the igneous rocks, it will be easily seen why in the 
deposit itself the economic minerals can be suddenly replaced by 
rocks which may be said to be nothing else but the gangue. If this 
origin is understood it will facilitate and encourage the working of 
these deposits in depth, because the accompanying igneous rock, 
forming a mass or a dyke alongside of the deposit, will be easy to 
follow, and because if it is apatite or iron-bearing at the surface, it 
will always be a guarantee that it will also be in depth, as each sepa- 
rate mass of igneous rock is generally quite constant in composi- 
tion." 



The PhospJiafes of America. 37 

Despite the great attention and care with which we have our- 
selves examined numerous specimens of the Canadian apatites taken 
from various points over the entire formation, we have failed to 
discover by means of the microscoi^e the least trace of anything 
that would lead us personally to connect them with organic life. 
We prefer to ascribe them to a decomposition of the pyroxenite by 
a process of segregation similar to that which in other places has 
resulted in the production of quartz and orthoclase, and we can see 
no reason for making any distinction between the character of the 
dej^osits. According to Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, the stratiform char- 
acter of these endogenous deposits, as seen alike in the individual 
portions and in the arrangement of these as constituent parts of a 
vein, is well shown at the Union mine, in the Lievres district. 
Here the great mass or lode is seen to be bounded on the west by 
a dark-colored amphibolic gneiss, nearly vertical in attitude, and 
with northwest strike. AVithin the vein, and near its western 
border, is enclosed a fragment of the gneiss, about twenty feet in 
width, which is traced some yards along the strike of the vein to a 
cliff, where it is lost from sight, its breadth being previously much 
diminished. It is a sharj^ly broken mass of gray banded gneiss, 
with a re-entering angle, and its close contact with the surround- 
ing and adherent coarsely granular pyroxenic veinstone is very 
distinct. Smaller masses of the same gneiss are also seen in the 
vein, which was observed for a breadth of about 150 feet across its 
strike (nearly coincident Avith that of the adjacent gneiss), and be- 
yond was limited to the northeast by a considerable breadth of the 
same country-rock. 

In one opening on this lode there are seen, in a section of forty 
feet of the banded veinstone, repeated layers of apatite, pyroxenite 
and a granitoid quartzo-feldspathic rock, including j)ortions of dark 
brown foliated pyroxene, all three of these being unlike anything 
in the enclosing gneiss, but so distinctly banded as to be readily 
taken for country-rock by those not apprised of the venous char- 
acter of the mass. A fracture, with a lateral disjDlacement of two 
or three feet, is occupied by a gi-anitic vein twelve inches wide, 
made up of quartz with two feldspars and black amphibole, which 
themselves present a distinctly banded arrangement. This same 
granitic vein is traced for iifty feet, cutting obliquely across both 
the pyroxenite and the older granitoid rock, and at length spreads 
out, and is confounded with a granitic mass interbedded in the 
greater vein. It is thus posterior alike to the older quartzo-feld- 



38 The Phosphates of America. 

spathic rock, the pyroxenite and the apatite, as are also many 
smaller quartzo-feldspathic veins, which, both here and in other 
localities in this region, intersect at various angles the apatite, the 
pyroxenite and the granitoid rock into which the latter graduates. 
We have thus included in these great apatite-bearing lodes 
quartzo-feldspathic rocks of at least two ages, both younger than 
the enclosing gneiss. A smaller vertical vein of fine-grained black 
diabase-like rock intersects the whole. No one looking for the 
first time at this section of forty feet, as exposed in the quarry, 
with its distinctly banded and alternating layers of pyroxenite 
and granitoid quartzo-feldspathic rock, including two larger and 
several smaller layers of crystalline apatite, would question the 
stratiform character of the mass, whose venous and endogenous 
nature is nevertheless distinctly apparent on further studj^ 

In other portions of the same great vein, quarried at many 
points, this regularity of arrangement is less evident. Occasion- 
ally masses are met with pi-esenting a concretionary structure, and 
consisting of rounded or oval aggregates of orthoclase and quartz, 
with small crystals of pyroxene around and between them ; 
the arrangement of the elements presenting a radiated and zone- 
like structure, and recalling the orbicular diorite of Corsica. 
The diameter of these granitic concretions varies from half an 
inch to one and two inches, and they have been seen in several 
localities in the veins of this region over areas of many square 
feet. 

In the Emerald mine the stratiform arrangement in the vein is 
remarkably displayed. Here, in the midst of a great breadth of 
apatite, were seen two parallel bands (since removed in mining) of 
pyroxenic rock, several yards in length, running with the strike of 
the vein, and in their broadest parts three and eight feet wide re- 
spectively, but becoming attenuated at either end and disappear- 
ing, one after the other, in length, as they did also in depth. These 
included vertical layers, evidently of contemporaneous origin with 
the enclosing apatite, were themselves banded with green and 
white from alternations of pyroxene of a feldspar with quartz. 
Accompanying the apatite in this mine are also bands of irregular 
masses of flesh-red calcite, sometimes two or three feet in breadth, 
including crystals of apatite, and others of dark-green amphibole. 
Elsewhere, as at the High Rock mine, tremolite is met with. In 
portions of the vein at the Emerald mine pyrite is found incon- 
siderable quantity, and occasionally forms layers many inches in 



The Phosphates of America. 39 

thickness. Several large parallel bands of apatite occur here with 
intervening layers of pyroxene and feldspathic rock, across a 
breadth of at least 250 feet of veinstone, besides numerous small 
irregular, lenticular masses of apatite. The pyroxenite in this 
lode, as elsewhere, includes in places large crystals of phlogopite, 
and also presents in drusy cavities crystals of a scapolite and 
occasionally small, brilliant crystals of colorless chabazite, which 
are implanted on quartz. 

At the Little Rapids mine, not far from the last, where well- 
defined bands or layers of apatite, often eight or ten feet wide, 
have been followed for considerable distances along the strike, and 
in one place to about 200 feet in depth, these are, nevertheless, 
seen to be subordinate to one great vein, similar in composition to 
those just described, and including bands of granular quartz. In 
some portions of this lode the alternations of granular pyroxenite, 
quartzite and a quartzo-feldspathic rock with little lenticular 
masses of apatite are repeated two or three times in a breadth of 
twelve inches. 

The whole of the observations thus set forth serve to show the 
existence, in the midst of a more ancient gneissic series, of great 
deposits, stratiform in character, complex and varied in composi- 
tion, and though distinct therefrom, lithologically somewhat simi- 
lar to the enclosing gneiss. Their relations to the latter, however, 
as shown by the outlines at the surfaces of contact by the included 
masses of the wall-rock, the alternations and alternate deposition 
of mineral species and the occasional unfilled cavities lined with 
crystals, forbid us to entertain the notion that they have been filled 
by igneous injection, as conceived by Plutonists, and lead to the 
conclusion that they have been gradually dej)Osited from aqueous 
solutions. 

As one of the most interesting results of the extensive and 
costly mining operations carried out during the past few years, it 
has, we repeat, been demonstrated that the apatite really does 
traverse the entire stratum in which it is found, and that, if it is 
extremely jDockety and deceptive in its occurrence, it nevertheless is 
perfectly persistent. It has also been proved that, to put it broadly, 
the same geological characteristics prevail throughout the belts. 

It hence follows that all the deposits may be mined by the same 
method, and that, since we are called upon to deal with invariably 
mixed-up lodes, the quantity of apatite produced will be in direct 
proportion to the amount of rock removed. 



40 The PhospJiates of America. 

After duly and seriously considering the j^roblem from every 
standpoint, we venture to say that, if the best working mines could 
be all grouped together, the total ratio of pure apatite to other ma- 
terial could be brought up to about seven per cent. 

It is true that there would be certain times when "bonanza" 
pockets would permit of very large pi-oduction, but it is equally 
true that when the ordinary veins commence to "pinch," as they 
often do, the average production would be very small, or sometimes 
even nil until other bonanzas appeared. The figure of seven per 
cent, is therefore a very reasonable one as basis for calculations, 
when applied to Canadian mining as a Avhole. 

A properly equipped mine, under the direction of a careful and 
experienced miner. Judicious in his use of explosives, should be al- 
lowed the following force of men, employed as set forth : 

30 men at prospecting- or preparatory work over various 
parts oi the property at $1.10 per day each for 300 
days $6,600 

50 miners and strikers in shafts or quarries with one steam 

drill at $1.20 per day each for 300 days 18,000 

10 men at surface labor, unloading, dumping-, etc., at $1 

per day each for 300 days 3,000 

10 men in engine or machine shop, blacksmith shop and 

carpenter's shop at $1.20 per day each for 300 days. . 3,600 . 
5 men in cobbing house at $1 per day each for 300 days. . 1,500 

20 boys in cobbing house at 75 cents per day each for 300 

days 4.500 

115 men and boys employed daily — cost for the year $37,200 

From practical experience in this class of work it is estimated 
that the miners and prospectors will produce 5 tons of rock matter 
from the lode or belt per day and per man, and it has been found 
that the other labor and the plant must be regarded as accessory to 
this production. 

Seventy men at 5 tons per day for 300 days will therefore pro- 
duce 105,000 tons of material, which, at 25 cents per ton, will cost 
$26,250 for steam, explosives, Avear and tear of plant, tools and 
general stores. 

The cost of the apatite per ton at the mines, ready for ship- 
ment, will therefore be approximately as under : 

Total yearly cost of labor $37,200 

Total cost of stores, etc 26,250 

Total expenditure at mine $63,450 




2 1 



The Phosphates of A?nerica. 41 

Total production of rock, 105,000 tons. 

Seven per cent, of this quantity = 7,350 tons phosphate of all 
grades, from seventy to eighty-five per cent. 

$63,450 -f- 7,350 tons = -$8.60 per ton. 

These figures are suggested, we repeat, as those of the average 
raining cost, and it is hardly necessary to add that while some of 
the mines now working may be doing better, others are cei-tainly 
not doing so well as this. In any event we must add to the 
figures the salaries of various officers and the interest on the 
capital invested in the purchase of the mine. If these items 
be grouped together under one head, we shall probably be within 
the mark if we charge them at the very moderate sum of |1.40 
per ton on the amount of ore produced. This would therefore 
place the average net cost per ton, at the mines, at $10 for the 
qualities named. Again, it must be remembered that we are 
estimating the averages over the entire year. It would be obviously 
unfair to object to them that, when the mines are in " bonanza,"^ 
the i^hosphate does not cost more than one-half the estimated 
amount, just as it would be unreasonable to claim, during a long 
period of "dead" work, that it costs twice or three times as much. 
When studying this question of cost, we must bear in mind that, 
owing to the mixed-up nature of the vein matter, nearly all the 
output has hitherto been put through the expensive process of hand- 
cobbing, as show in our illustration, in order to arrive at an average 
standard quality of from seventy-five to eighty-five per cent, of 
phosjDhate of lime. The impossibility of obtaining fairly remu- 
nerative prices in Europe, which is the mai'ket for the entire Cana- 
dian output, for lower grades, has necessitated this cobbing and 
induced a state of affairs probably unprecedented in the history of 
any mining operations. We refer to the fact that the whole of the 
apatite mining companies have been shipping no more than about 
one-third of their total production ; the balance has been lost in 
the cobbing, and has been consigned to the dumps with the re- 
fuse, where it now remains as useless material ! 

That few, if any, of the enterprises have paid any dividends on 
their capital is not a matter for surprise under such circumstances 
as these, nor is any argument necessary to show how immeasurably 
their position would be ameliorated if a market were created for 
lower grade ores. The cost of transportation now renders these 
unfit for the market of Europe, but they are just the very class of 



42 The PUos])liates of America. 

material required for the manufacture of fertilizers for home con- 
sumjjtion, and it M'ould be wiser jjolicy to dispense Avith all the 
expensive processes of hand selection and cobbing at the majority 
of the mines, and to rest content with such an assortment at the 
quarry side as would insure an average grade of sixty per cent. 
The proi^ortion of this quality to the total vein matter removed 
would be about double that of the pure apatite ; in other words, 
instead of seven, the output could be placed at fifteen j^er cent., 
and the cost of cobbing would be saved. 

The costliness of handling at the mine, however, is not the 
only impediment to the greater development of the apatite indus- 
try in Canada; another, and very serious obstacle, is the comj^arative 
inaccessibility of the deposits. One or two of the most important 
companies have gone to the expense of constructing shutes, or in- 
clined railroads, for the carriage of their jjroduct to the river's 
banks, but by far the greater portion of the output is at present 
rolled in wagons or sleighs over very indifferent roads generally 
leading to a rough storehouse, provided with a weighing shed and 
a Howe's scale. At this point different compartments or bins 
receive the phosj^hate according to its grade or quality, and a 
series of tramways connect the stored heaps with inclined shutes, 
whence the material is loaded directly into scows or barges on the 
river. 

The actual cost of transport from the chief mining centres in 
the Quebec district to the wharf-side at Monti'eal has been the 
object of special inquiry, and the following figures have been ob- 
tained from official sources : 

COST OF TRANSPORTING APATITE FROM THE CHIEF MINING CENTRES IN 
OTTAWA COUNTY TO THE WHARF AT MONTREAL. 

Loading at mines, carting to and unloading at Riverside 

Store $1 50 

Loading into scows 05 

Towing to Buckingham Village 18 

Unloading scows and loading on cars of C. P. R. R 12 

Railway freight to Montreal , , . 1 25 

Wharfage, insurance and incidentals at Montreal 50 

Total cost of transport from the mines per ton $3 60 

It would hence appear that the average cost of Canadian apa- 
tite delivered free on board vessels at Montreal outward bound 
for European ports must be placed at about $14 per ton, and 



Tlie FJiosphates of America. 



43 



against this it will be of interest to study the selling prices which 
prevailed for the material during 1890. 

TABLE SHOWING THE SELLING PRICES OF CANADIAN APATITE F. O. B. MON- 
TREAL DURING 1890. 

For phosphate guaranteed to contain 85 percent., $25 00 per ton. 
" " " " " 80 " 22 50 

75 " 18 00 

70 " 14 50 

65 " 11 25 

If we could assume that the two highest of the above qualities 
formed the bulk of the material exported, it is evident that Cana- 
dian phosphate-mining would have to be placed in the front rank 
-of profitable enterprises. Whether the bulk is thus composed, 
however, is a very perplexing question in the face of the following 
official figures showing the total quantities and values of ore yearly 
exported since the opening of the mines in 1877 : 

TABLE SHOWING THE YEARLY EXPORTS AND VALUES OF CANADIAN PHOS- 
PHATES. 



YEAR. 


QUANTITY, TONS. 


VALUE, DOLLARS 


YEAR. 


QUANTITY, TONS. 


VALUE, DOLLARS 


1877. . . . 


2,823 


47,084 


1884 


21,709 


424,240 


1878. . . . 


10,743 


208,109 


1885 


28,969 


496,293 


1879. . . . 


8,446 


122,035 


1886 


20,440 


343,007 


1880. . . . 


13,060 


190,086 


1887 


23,152 


433,217 


1881.... 


11,968 


218,456 


1888 


18,776 


298,609 


1882. . . . 


17,153 


338,357 


1889 


29,987 


394,768 


1883.... 


19,716 


427,668 


1890 


22,000 


330,000 



From the values thus recorded Ave gather that in the year 1885 
about 29,000 tons were sold at the average of $17 per ton in Mon- 
treal, whereas in 1890 the outj^ut fell to 22,000 tons and the price to 
an average of |15 per ton at the same place. This would indicate 
that the average quality of the entire yield was seventy to seventy- 
five per cent, of tricalcic or bone phosphate, and in such a case 
the net profit on the entire exploitation could not have been very 
large. 

Nothing could possibly be more confirmatory of our views of 
this mining field, therefore, than the official returns relating to it, 
and we cannot refrain from again insisting, and with additional em- 
phasis, upon the necessity for an immediate and radical change of 
policy. 



44 The Pliospliates of America. 

The custom of throwing the entire cost of production upon the 
high grades is unfair and should be discontinued. In its stead a 
rule should be established of setting aside for foreign shipment 
only such portions of the pure apatite as may be obtained directly 
from the lode without hand-cobbing at the surface. There would 
be no difficulty in disposing of these choice lots in Europe at very 
high prices, and there is no doubt that with proper care and skill 
in the management they could be brought up to one-fourth of the 
total output. The balance of the material mined would certainly 
average more than sixty per cent., would probably go up to sixty- 
five, and Avould of course, as we have already explained, bear a far 
larger proportionate relation to the total rock removed than it 
does now. Since there is no lack of grinding facilities at Bucking- 
ham Village, quite close at hand, and since there are several abun- 
dant deposits of pyrites — the material required for sulphuric acid 
manufacture — in the immediate vicinity, it is self-evident that this 
low-grade material could be readily and cheaply transformed into 
an excellent superphosphate, containing at least fourteen per cent, 
of soluble or available phosphoric acid. 

There would be no difficulty whatever in establishing a sale for 
such an article at a very fair rate of profit, and the demand simul- 
taneously created for sulj^huric acid by the adoption of this method 
would stimulate the development of the chemical industry in vari- 
ous branches, and new channels would thus be opened up for the 
safe and profitable investment of capital and the constant and re- 
munerative employment of labor. 



The Phosphates of America. 45 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Thk amorphous and nodular deposits of phosphate of lime thus 
far discovered in the United States have been found in that portion 
of tlie rocks of the fourth geological period or " Cenozoic " time 
known as the Tertiary Formatioii, or " age of mammals," which 
immediately preceded the Quaternary J^orniation, or " age of 
man." 

It is probable that the earth's surface really began to assume its 
present geographical aspect in this tertiarv^ age, and a great part of 
lis fauna and^ora either closely resembled or was identical with a 
large number of our existing familiar species. Chief among its 
characteristics was a marked and continuous subsidence of the 
seas and an accompanying increased elevation of the land. The 
seas underwent evaporation ; lagoons were formed ; marshes were 
dried up; lakes were drained, and mountain chains arose and towered 
above deep valleys. The climatic conditions were next revolution- 
ized, for the even temperature communicated by the earth's interior 
heat to an unbroken surface could no longer prevail. A redis- 
tribution of fauna and fora hence necessarily ensued, and number- 
less species were naturally exterminated before perfect acclimation 
could be accomplished. The fossilized remains of these extinct 
species, including incredibly gigantic reptiles and sea monsters, con- 
tinue to afford a most interesting field for the study of paleontology, 
and have enabled us to recognize the pachydermatous anoplothe- 
rium as the oldest typical mammal, and to trace the succeeding 
true ruminant and carnivora and the endless swarms of shell-fish 
and bivalves right down to the present time. 

The subdivisions of the tertiary age embrace three eras, which 
are respectively known to geologists as follows : 

The Eocene Era, or age of nearly extinct species. 

The Miocene Era, or age of which the species are more than 
half extinct. 

The Pliocene Era, or age of which more than half the species 
are still living. 

The rocks of the tertiary have been classified according to 



46 The Phosphates of America. 

certa n characteristic differences in their essential features arising 
from the fact that one portion of them was deposited by fresh and 
another by salt water. The oldest of them comprise gradually 
ascending beds of sands, clays, compact sandstones, loose shell-beds 
and calcareous sandstones, and they gradually develop into marls, 
clays, chalk, solid limestones and greensands. No other age was 
subjected at various intervals to more severe erujitive action, and 
its close was marked by immense disturbances, of which most of 
our active volcanoes remain as monuments for our wondering con- 
templation. 

The jiortion of the tertiary strata in which our workable phos- 
phate deposits are found may be broadly said to hug the coast of 
the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico from New Jersey to 
Texas, and to embrace within its area the most extensive marl-beds 
in the world. 

Deposits of more or less commercial value and importance have 
been located and worked in Virginia, North and South Carolina, 
Alabama, Georgia and Florida, and there is no reason why they 
should not be found in large quantities in States where they are not 
at present known, or where they have only hitherto appeared to be 
of very low grade. 

If no further discoveries should take place in our time, however, 
the vast beds of South Carolina and Florida are capable of yielding 
more than sufficient to sujjply the entire needs of the world far into 
the future, and as they are the only present sources likely to be 
extensively exploited in this country, we may dismiss all others 
without further comment. 

In his work on "The Phosphate Rocks of South Carolina," 
Professor Francis S. Holmes tells us, in reference to their discovery, 
that in November, 1837, in an old rice field about a mile from the 
west bank of the A«hley River, in St. Andrew's Parish, he found a 
number of rolled or water-worn nodules of a rocky material filled 
with the impressions of marine shells. These nodules or rocks were 
scattered over the surface of the land, and in some places had been 
gathered into heaps so that they could not materially interfere 
with the cultivation of the field. As these rocks contained little 
carbonate of lime (the material of all others then most eagerly 
sought after), they were thrown aside and considered useless as a 
fertilizing substance. In December, 1843, in another old field he 
attempted to bore with an augur below the surface to ascertain the 
nature of the earth beneath, with the hope of finding marl. On 



TJie PJiosphates of America. 47 

removing the soil above the rocks they were seen in a regular 
stratum about one foot thick imbedded in clay, and seemed to be 
identically the same as those found scattered on the surface of ad- 
joining land, all of them bearing impressions of shells and having 
similar cavities and holes filled with clay. It was on the 23d or 24th 
of February, 1844, while engaged in the removal of the upjjer beds 
covering the marl, that the laborers discovered several stone arrow- 
heads and one stone hatchet. Not long after finding these relics of 
human workmanship, and while engaged in his usual visits to the 
Ashley marl-bed. Prof. Holmes found a bone projecting from the 
bluff immediately in contact with the surface of the stony stratum 
(the phosphate rocks); he pulled it out and beheld a human bone I 
Without hesitation he condemned it as an " accidental occupant "■ 
of quarters to which it had no right, geologically, and so threw 
it into the river. A year after, a lower jaw-bone with teeth was 
taken from the same bed. Subsequent events and discoveries show 
conclusively that the first-described bone was in " place," and that 
the beds of the jjost-Pliocene, not only on the Ashley River, but in 
France, Switzerland and other European countries, contain bone» 
associated with the remains of extinct animals and relics of human 
workmanship. 

The necessary lime or calcareous earth for manufacturing salt- 
petre on the west bank of the Ashley River during the Confederate 
war was obtained by sinking pit^ into the Eocene marl-bed. 

Upon the removal of a few feet of the ujjper layers the workmen, 
discovered in one pit a number of oddly-shaped nodules, resem- 
bling somewhat the marl-stones (phosphate rock) found in the 
stratum above the marl, but more cylindrical in form and not 
perforated, and having their exterior polished, as though each in- 
dividual specimen had received a coat of varnish ; they aj^peared 
to have been deposited in a large corner or pocket in the marl-bed. 
Upon submitting these samples to analyses their true value was 
revealed and South Carolina thereafter became a centre of attrac- 
tion. 

It was not until about 1867, however, that a mining company 
could be organized to test the practicability of working the phos- 
phate on a eommercial scale, but this company was no sooner 
started than it became a success, and the industry has since then 
progressed with such leaps and bounds that it has raised the status 
of South Carolina to that of the most productive j)hosphate field 
yet known to industry. 



48 



The P]ios2)liates of America. 



The geological formation of what Is commonly called its phos- 
phate " belt " is made up of quaternary sands and clays. These 
overlie the beds of Eocene marls, upon whose surface and inter- 







mixed with which is found the phosphate deposit. The presumed 
total area covered by this characteristic formation, as shown by 
the map, is 70 miles in length and 30 miles in width, extending 



The Phosphates of America. 49 

fl'om the mouth of Broad River, near Port Royal, in the south- 
east, to the head waters of the Wando River in the northeast. 
Its major axis is parallel to the coast, and its greatest width is in 
the neighborhood of Charleston. 

Whether the deposit is continuous or not over the whole of this 
zone, it certainly varies considerably in dejjth and thickness. In 
many places we have seen it 3 feet thick and cropping out at the 
surface, whereas in others it has dwindled down to a few inches, 
or was found at depths varying from 3 to 20 feet. These two con- 
ditions, thickness of deposits and depth of strata, taken together 
with the richness of material in phosphoric acid, are of course the 
chief points for consideration in the economic working of the 
Charleston phosphate beds on an industrial scale. 

The most approved and generally adopted method of ascertain- 
ing the importance and value of the deposits is that of boring and 
pit-sinking. 

A careful topographical survey is first made of the country, 
and Avhen this has been d6ne there commences a systematic series 
of bore-holes from any point that may be arranged, by means of a 
long steel borer or rod, specially designed for the purpose. The 
boring l-od is worked down through the upper strata until it is ar- 
rested by the solid bed of phosphate. Directly the slightest resist- 
ance is offered to its passage it is drawn up, and the distance it has 
traversed is measured with a foot-rule. The measurement having 
been noted, the rod is again let down, is forced through the resist- 
ing strata, and is then again withdrawn and measured. The differ- 
ence between the first and second measurements is taken as repre- 
senting the thickness of the phosphate bed. These bore-holes are 
practised at distances of 100 feet apart over the total surface to be 
examined. The results obtained with the rod are verified and con- 
firmed by a series of exploratory pits — 10 feet long by 5 feet wide 
— which are dug over the course of the bore-holes at intervals of 
500 feet. The bore-holes are driven to a maximum depth of 15 
feet, and no pits are at i>resent sunk on those portions of the land 
where at that distance no phosphate has been encountered. Im- 
mediately after removing the overlying strata the phosj^hate is 
carefully taken out, its depth and thickness measured, and an aver- 
age sample of the rock and nodules secured and laid aside for 
analysis. 

The practically invariable nature of the superincumbent ma- 
terial throughout the entire belt, as shown by the digging of a 



50 



The Plio^iliates of America. 



large number of pits under our direction, is represented in the fol- 
lowing table, the figures being averages compiled from our field 
note-book : 



Soil very black and acid 

Mixture of sand and blue claj' 

Silicious clay 

Potters' clay mixed with shells 

Sandy, hard conglomerate 

Phosphate rock or nodules mixed with 

blue clay 

Depth of overlying beds 



Feet. 

2 

2 
traces 



Feet. 



2 



21, 






Feet. 
1 
4 

3^ 
3K 






Feet. 
2 

IK 
4 

1¥ 

2K 

Ilk' 



This is still further illustrated and will be probably more clearly 
conveyed by the accompanying sketches of typical sections, pre- 
pared by R. A. F. Penrose, Esq., and borrowed from Bulletin No. 
46 of the United States Geological Survey. 




Section ENE. and WSW. through Pinckney's phosphate field. South Carolina. A, 
sand ; B, ferruginous sand ; C, phosphate rock ; D, Ashley marl. Scale : 1 inch = 60 feet. 

So far as we have been able to discover, no systematic inves- 
tigation has been made of those lands which contain the phosphate 




Average section in Pinckney's phosphate mine, Berkeley County, South Carolina. A, clay 
sand ; B, ferruginous sand ; C, phosphate rock ; D, Ashley marl. Scale : 1 inch = 6 feet. 

deposit at a greater maximum depth than 15 feet, it having been 
liitherto considered impracticable, tinder the conditions of abun- 



The Phosphates of America. 



51 



dant surface supply and consequent low mining cost, to conduct a 
profitable exploitation at any greater depth. A far wider area of 
lands than those actually classed as mining properties may there- 
fore contain the very same deposit of phosphate, lying under a con- 



. s. 




....rf^w* ^-' 



i*)>^K5: 






Section in one of Fishburne's pits, South Carolina. A, sand ; B, ferrug-inous sand ; C, 
phosphate nodules in clay matrix. Scale : 1 inch = 7 feet. 

siderably greater accumulation of the quaternary strata, and this 
is the view we are personally disposed to adojjt as representing the 
facts. Whether or not, however, in face of the recent Florida phos- 
phate discovery, any economical means will ever be devised in our 
time to exploit them at a profit, should they really exist, is a ques- 
tion as to which we are in very serious doubt. 

The phosphate deposits in South Carolina are of two kinds, the 
" River" and the " Land," but the material found in the river bot- 
toms of the "belt" is of practically the same chemical description 
as that of the land, having, in fact, been merely washed into them 
from its original beds. It has been worked extensively and has 
proved to be of great commercial value, since it is obtained by the 
simple and inexpensive jDrocess of dredging, and is thus raised and 
washed free from all adhering imjjurities by one and the same 
operation. 

The dredging scoops are made extremely massive in order that 
they may break through the nodular stratum, and the boats are 
held in position at the four corners by " sj^uds " or strong square 
poles with iron points, which are dropped into the water before 
dredging is begun, and afford a strong support for the boat by 
going through the nodule stratum and down into the river-bed 
below. The nodules are thrown from the scoop into the washer, 
which is on a lighter alongside the dredging boat. The washer, in 
some cases, is the same as those used by the land-mining companies, 
to be presently described, but often it consists of a truncated cone, 
with perforated sides, revolving on a horizontal axis. It is sup- 



52 The Phosjihates of America. 

plied on the inside with steel spirals, arranged around the side like 
the grooves in a rifle, and heavy streams of water flow into its two 
ends. The nodules are dumped by the dredge into the small end 
of the cone and come out at the large end. They are then removed 
by a derrick to another lighter and towed to shore. 

The dredging machine is not the only means employed for rais- 
ing the river phosphate, some companies having adopted a contriv- 
ance consisting of six large claws, which open when they descend, 
and close, forming a kind of bucket, when they rise. It is said 
that some of these machines can dredge in 50 to 60 feet of water, 
while the ordinary dredging boat cannot raise the phosphate in 
over 20 feet. 

Both the rock and nodules from these river and land deposits 
occur in very irregular masses or blocks of extremely hard con- 
glomerate of variegated colors, weighing from less than half an 
ounce to more than a ton. The mean specific gravity of the mate- 
rial is 2.40, and it is bored in all directions by very small holes. 
These holes are the work of innumerable crustaceae, and are now 
filled/with sands and clays of the overlying strata. Sometimes the 
rock is quite smooth or even glazed, as if worn by water ; at others 
it is rough and jagged. 

Interspersed between the nodules and lumps of conglomerate are 
the fossilized remains of various species of fish and some animals, 
chiefly belonging to the Eocene, Pliocene or j^ost-Pliocene ages. 

Very careful analyses of a large number of the samples of land 
rocks taken from the pits and made in our laboratory gave, after 
being well dried at 212° F., the following average : 

Moisture, water of combination and org-anic matter lost on 

ignition 8.00 

Phosphate of lime 59.63 

Carbonate of lime 8.68 

Iron and alumina (calculated as oxides) 6.60 

Carbonate of magnesia 0.73 

* Sulphuric acid and fluoride of lime 4.80 

Sand, siliceous matters and iindelermined 11.56 

Total 100.00 

While it is shown by these figures that the grae of this phos- 
phate is not extremely high, it has been proved by experience all 
over the world to be admirably adapted for the purpose of manu- 
facturing commercial fertilizers, and it will doubtless long con- 

* The sulphuric acid represents the sulphur combined with iron as pyrites. 



The Pliospliates of America. 53 

tinue for this reason to maintain a leading position as a raw 
material. 

Before the land rock can be made available for industrial pur- 
poses, it is made to pass through three distinct and successive 
operations. 

1. Mining or excavating. 

2. Washing it free from sand and other impurities. 

3. Kilning, to free it from moisture. 

Taking these in their order, it is customary to establish a main 
trunk railroad, starting at the river front or on the bank of some 
convenient stream, and passing right through the centre of the 
jjroperty to be exploited. 

Alternate laterals can be run^off at right angles from any por- 
tion of this main line, at distances of^ say, 500 feet, in conformity 
with the nature of the ground. Between and parallel to these 
laterals a ditch or drain is dug to a depth extending 4 to 5 feet 
below the phosphate strata. From this main drain the excava- 
tors start their lines at right angles to the laterals, commencing 
at one end of the field and digging trenches 15 feet wide and 
600 feet long, the work being so arranged that the men are stationed 
at intervals of 6 feet. Every man is supposed to dig out, daily, 
a "pit" 6 feet long, 15 feet wide, and down to the phosphate 
rock. The overlying material is thrown out to the left-hand side 
of the trench. The phosj^hate itself is thrown out to the right and 
taken in wheelbarrows to the railroad cars which pass at either 
end of the trench. The water drains from the trenches into the 
underlying ditch, and is thence pumjjed out by means of a steam- 
23ump worked by a locomotive engine. The pump and the engine 
are secured to connected railway platforms, and run along the rail- 
road track from one ditch to another as occasion requires. 

The cars, loaded with the crude phosphatic material dug out of 
the pits, are run down to the washing apparatus, consti-ucted at an 
elevation of some 30 feet from the ground, and generally consist- 
ing of a series of semi-circular troughs 20 to 30 feet long, set in 
an iron framework at an incline of some 20 inches rise in their 
length. Through every trough passes an octagonal iron-cased 
shaft provided with blades so arranged and distributed as to form 
a screw with a twist of one foot in six, which forces the washed 
material upwards and projects the fragments against each other. 
The phosj^hate-laden cars are hauled up an incline and their con- 
tents dumjied into the bottom ti'ough, where the phosphate en- 



54 The Pliospliates of America. 

counters one oi' more heavy streams of water, pumiced up by a steam- 
pumj). This water does not run off at the bottom, but overflows 
at the higher end near where it enters. AVhen sufliciently washed, 
the material is pushed out upon a half -inch-mesh screen ; the small 
debris being received on oscillating wire tables below. 

The phosphate is now ready for kilning or drying, and of all the 
methods hitherto adopted for this important process, that of simple 
roasting in an ordinary kiln, such as is generally used in the manu- 
facture of bricks, is said to have been found at once the most rapid, 
effective and economical. 

The rock is built on layers of pine wood, and owing to its con- 
taining a considerable quantity of organic matter, it readily lends 
itself to combustion and requires but a short time to become quite 
red-hot. 

The kilns are made sufliciently large and are so arranged as to 
allow free passage to a train of cars, which, running on the main 
line of railroad, can be loaded in the kiln, run down to the landing 
place and discharged directly into the barges or boats on the river. 

Since the beginning of operations in 1 8G8, the yearly quantities of 
phosphate taken from the South Carolina rivers and mines have been: 

Year. Land Rock. River Rock. Total Tons. 

1868-70 18,000 1,989 19,989 

1871 33,000 17,055 50,655 

1872 38,000 33,502 60,503 

1873 45,000 45,777 90,777 

1874 43,000 57,716 100,716 

1875 48,000 07,969 115,969 

1876 54,000 81,913 135,912 

1877 39,000 136,569 165,569 

1878 113,000 97,700 210,700 

1879 103,000 98,586 200,586 

1880 125,000 , 65,162 190,163 

1881 141,000 124,541 265,541 

1882 190,000 140,772 830,772 

1883 226,000 129,318 355,318 

1884 258,000 151,243 409,243 

1885 224,000 171,671 395,671 

1886 294,000 191.194 485,194 

1887 230,000 202,757 432,757 

1888 360,000 190,374 450,374 

1889 350,000 313,101 463,101 

1890 300,000 337,149 537,149 



Totals, 3,031,000 3,434,557 5,465,557 



1891. estimated total from all sources 650,000 



The Phosphates of America. 55 

And the number and the importance of the companies actually 
engaged in mining are shown in the following table : 

LAND PHOSPHATE COMPANIES. 
Name. Address. Capital. 

Williman Island Co P. O.. Beaufort; works, Bull River. $200,000 

Bolton Mines (K. S. Tupper). P. O., Charleston ; works, Stone 

River 50,000 

Charleston Mining & Manu- 
facturing Co P. O., Charleston ; works, Ashley 

River 1,000,000 

Campbell & Hertz P. O., Rantowles ; works, Ran- 

t >wles Creek 50,000 

Bulow Mines (Wm.M. Bradley) p. O., Charleston ; works, Ran- 
towles Creek 350,000 

Mt. Holley Mining & Manr- 

facturing Co P. O., Charleston ; works, Mt. 

Holley, N. E. R. R 50,000 

C. H. Drayton P O., Charleston ; works, Ashley 

River 50,000 

William Gregg P. O., Summerville ; works, Ash- 
ley River 50,000 

F. C. Fishburne P. O., Jacksonboro ; works, Pon 

Pon River 50,000 

Meadville Mines (E. Meade).. . P. O., Charleston ; works, Cooper 

River 300,000 

Magnolia Mines (C. C. Pinck- 

ney) P. O., Charleston ; works, Ashley 

River 100,000 

Rose Mines (A. B. Rose) P. O., Charleston ; works, Ashley 

River 100,000 

Wayne & Von Kolnitz P. O., Charleston ; works, Ashley 

River 50,000 

St. Andrews Mining Co P. O., Charleston ; works, Stono 

River 200,000 

Hannahan Mines P. O., Charleston ; works. Cooper 

River 50,000 

Horse Shoe Mining Co. (Wm. 
Gregg') P. O., Charleston; works, Ashepoo 

River 50,000 

Wando Phosphate Co P. O., Charleston ; works, Ashley 

River 200,000 

T. D. Dotterrer P. O., Charleston ; works, Ashley 

River 25,000 

Archdale Mines (Hertz & War- 
ren) P. O., Charleston ; works, Ashley 

• River 20,000 

Pacific Guano Co P. O., Charleston; works, Bull 

River 100,000 

Eureka Mining Co P. O., Charleston ; works, Jack- 
sonboro, C. & S. R. R 40.000 



56 The PhospJiates of America. 

RIVER PHOSPHATE COMPANIES. 
iVanie. Address. Capital.. 

Beaufort Phosphate Co.. P. O., Beaufort ; works, Beaufort River. $100,00(> 

Coosaw Mining- Co P. O., Coosa vv ; works, Coosawand Bull 

rivers... 600,000 

Carolina Mining Co P. O., Beaufort ; works, Beaufort River. 250,000 

Farmers' Mining Co P. O., Beaufort ; works, Coosaw River. . 125,000 

Oak Point Mines Co. . . P. O., Beaufort ; works, Wimbe Creek... 150,000 

Sea Island Chemical Co. P. O., Beaufort ; works, Beaufort River. 250,000 

Of the river comjianies, the Coosaw, which for many years 
has been one of the chief operators, has lately been compelled ta 
suspend its production on account of a serious controversy with the 
State, and in this connection it will be interesting to refer to a 
message which was sent to the Legislature by the Governor of 
South Carolina on the 1st of March, 1891, in which he makes the 
following statement: 

"In 1870 the Legislature granted privileges to a corporation 
known as the River and Marine Company to mine rock in the 
navigable M^aters of the State for twenty-one years. The State re- 
ceived nothing for this valuable franchise. The Coosaw Mining 
Company obtained from the original grantors exclusive right to- 
mine in Coosaw River, and with a paid-up capital of |2 75,000 com- 
menced operations. In 1876 the General Assembly passed an act 
confirming the exclusive right of the Coosaw Company to mine in 
that river for the term of twenty-one years at a fixed royalty of -^1 
per ton, and this lease has now expired. The act of 1876 was drawn 
by the attorney of the Coosaw Company, and so adroitly Avorded 
as to give color to the claim that the grant of that river was per- 
petual 'so long as that company shall make true returns,' etc., and 
under this the company claims that its tenure is not a lease expiring 
in 1891, but a contract running for all time. This claim is pre- 
posterous, and this General Assembly must not hesitate to move for- 
ward and act promptly and decisively. 

"The Coosaw River, to which this company lays claim, is, ])er- 
ha])S, the best phosphate field in the world, and the lease under 
which it has been mined for twenty-one years has made every stock- 
holder wealthy. Their j)lant, which has been obtained from the 
surplus profits, is valued at $750,000 or over; and in the mean time, 
by fabulous dividends, the original capital of -^2 75,000 has been re- 
turned to the stockholders, as I am informed, over and over again. 
When you are told that the output of this company this year has 
been 107,000 tons, worth $7 per ton f. o. b., and that the cost of 



The Pliosphates of America. 57 

mining this rock, including royalty, cannot exceed ^4.25 per ton, 
and is believed by many to l)e much less, you will see that the 
margin of profit exceeds one hundred per cent, on the original in- 
vestment. The total roj'alty secured T>y the State from its })hos- 
phate has been over ^2,000,000, and of this amount over half has 
been paid by the Coosaw Company. 

" The expiration of the Coosaw lease in March next makes it pos- 
sible to double the income of the State from the })hosphate royalty 
without injuring the industry or interfering unduly with any vested 
right. We therefore demand a survey of the phosphate territory 
and the sale of its lease at auction to the highest bidder, after a 
minimum royalty has been fixed by the board of control upon each 
district survej'ed. Anything less than a thorough and reliable 
survey would be a waste of time and money, and this will take a 
good deal of both. But it will repay its cost, and until we have 
the data which alone can be thus obtained, we cannot legislate in- 
telligently or derive the benefits from this valuable property that 
we ought. This year the royalty has been ^237,000, and all of 
it except ^3,000 Avas ])aid by six large mining corporations, whose 
field of operations is confined to a territory within twenty miles 
of Beaufort. You Avill be told by some that this indicates an 
exhaustion of the deposits ; but I am sure it only means that good 
rock is more plentiful or more cheajjly mined there than elsewhere. 
A survey alone can demonstrate the truth or falsity of this belief, 
which is based upon the assurance of experts who themselves have 
mined in other waters of the State, and as the reliance of capitalists 
upon an estimate of the value of any given deposit of phosphates 
will depend largely upon the character of the man making the sur- 
vey, I have thought it best to obtain the help of the United States 
Government, if possible, and ask the detail of an ofticer of the 
Navy or Coast Survey to do the work. I think an appropriation 
of ^10,000 will be sufiicient to start with, and by the time the 
General Assembly meets a year hence, it will have something 
definite to go upon and can continue the work or not as it may deem 
best. In the mean time, by means of this survey and the ojipor- 
tunity for further investigation, to which all my spare time shall be 
devoted, a clearer understanding as to the best system of manage- 
ment of this important industry can be obtained and the General 
Assembly can then act intelligently. 

" When the Coosaw lease exjjires, March 1 next, let us open 
that river to all miners who choose to enter it ; allow the board of 



58 The Phosjjhates of Avwi'ica. 

control to parcel out the territory among them so as to prevent 
conflict ; raise the royally to $2 per ton and place one or more 
inspectors on the ground to supervise the work and weigh the rock 
when shipped. All the river rock mined in South Carolina is 
exported to Europe, and last year the demand was so great as to 
necessitate the exportation of 40,000 tons of land rock, while the 
price has steadily increased since 1887." 

This is a strong message, and how far G.overnor Tillman is 
justified in assuming the river deposits to be either "practically 
inexhaustible" or to have been very little affected by the enormous 
drain to which they have been subjected during the past twenty 
years, is a question of extreme delicacy. To what extent it is j^olitic 
or wise on the part of the State to increase the first cost of a raw 
material which is just now threatened with fierce competition from 
a most formidable and naturally favored rival is also a matter for 
very serious consideration. In any event, the fact remains that the 
Coosaw Company has seen fit to disagree with the views of the 
Governor and has joined issue with the State on the question of 
right. When the State Phosphate Commission, therefore, took 
possession of the Coosaw River territory, on the 2d of March, 1891, 
and made preparations to lease it to all who applied for a license, 
the company filed a protest, and on March 6th was granted a tem- 
porary injunction by Judge Simonton, of the United States Court, 
whereby the State Phosphate Commission was enjoined from enter- 
ing ujion, or otherwise interfering with, that part of the Coosaw 
River which the company had previously occupied. As a first 
result of the litigation the Chief Justice of the Sujjreme Court has 
decided as follows : 

"The acts of 1870 and 1876 must be construed in pari matKrla. 
Under the first act the State gave the grantees for twenty-one years 
the right to mine in its navigable streams. This grant was upon 
the condition that the grantees should pay annually $!l a ton on 
each ton dug and mined, and that they make a return of their 
operations annually, or oftener if required. This was not an 
exclusive right (Bradley vs. The Phosphate Company, 1 Hughes). 
It was upon condition ; that is to say, it existed so long as the con- 
ditions were fulfilled and no longer. The act of 1876 proposed 
modification of this contract in four particulars. 

" 1. The time for making the returns was definitely fixed at the 
end of each month. This was an advantage to both i>arties. 



The Phosphates of America. 59 

" 2, The royalty was made payable on each ton dug, mined and 
shipped, not on the rock mined. This was in favor of the grantees. 

" 3. The royalty was made payable quarterly, not annually, this 
provision to-go into effect immediately and royalty for the two quar- 
ters of the current year to be paid at once. This was in favor of 
the State. 

*' 4. The right to mine, therefore, if not exclusive, was made 
exclusive on account of the acceptance of the State's proposals. 

" The original contract was unchanged in every other resj^ect. 
The royalty remained the same, $1 per ton. The grant was 
wholly on condition, that is to say, existed so long as and no longer 
than the conditions were fulfilled. The duration of the grant dur- 
ing which these conditions were of force was unchanged — twenty- 
one years from 1870. 

"This is a reasonable construction of a doubtful act by which 
the doubt is resolved in favor of the sovereign grantor ; it is a 
familiar rule of construction that when a statute operates as a grant 
of public property to an individual, or the relinquishment of a public 
interest, and there is a doubt as to the meaning of its terms or its 
general purpose, that construction will be adopted which will sup- 
port the claim of the government rather than that of the individual. 
Nothing can be enforced against the State." 

This, then, is the present position of affairs, and pending an 
appeal from this decision the Coosaw Company has refrained from 
dredging the rivers and will certainly strain every nerve to prevent 
others from doing so, thereby reducing the output and quantity 
of river rock hitherto exported to Europe by about one-half. 

It will have been noticed that in the course of his message the 
cost of producing one ton of river rock in marketable condition 
was placed by the Governor at |4.25 per ton, including the $1 
royalty paid to the State, and that this is a fairly correct statement 
is borne out by the facts elicited in 1886 by a commission espe- 
cially api^ointed by the Legislature to investigate the subject. The 
same figures apply with equal fairness to the cost of the land phos- 
phate, as demonstrated by the testimony sworn to by various ex- 
])erts before the examining body and by our own practical investi- 
gation in the field. With a properly constructed plant, regular 
drainage and efficient and economical management, we find that 
the total cost of production of land j^hosphate in clean, dry, mar- 
ketable condition may be thus stated : 



60 The Pliospliates of America. 

Mining at a maximum depth of 15 feet $1.00 

Draining the mi ne . . . o 25 

Loading on cars and carrying to washer 60 

Washing 30 

Drying and handling in kiln 50 

Shipping- from kiln into vessels on i*iver 25 

Interest on capital invested ia plant and repairs to same. ... 15 

Superintendence and management of mines 20 

Towage to Charleston, say 25 



Total per ton of 2,240 pounds $3.50 

The present selling price of dry phosphate containing a mean 
average of fifty-seven per cent, tribasic or " bone phosphate " of 
lime is $7 per ton of 2,240 pounds on wharf at Charleston, and if we 
may judge of the total net profits accruing to the miners during the 
past twelve months by the dividends actually distributed by soma 
of the comjianies whose published accounts have been placed at 
our disposal, they cannot be estimated at less than 11,000,000. 

These figures are doubtless, in a great measure, responsible for 
the rapid intellectual and industrial growth of South Carolina, and 
they are significantly emphasized by the fact that of the total 
phosphate mined in the State, more than one-third is actually used 
in fertilizer factories situated in and around Charleston and owned, 
by the following companies : 

Port Royal FertiHzer Co Port Royal, S. C. 

Baldwin Fertilizer Co Port Royal, S. C. 

Atlantic Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 

Ashley Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 

Edisto Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 

"Wando Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 

Berkeley Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 

Etiwan Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 

Ashepoo Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 

Stono Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 

Imperial Fertilizer Co Charleston, S. C. 

Mead Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 

Royal Fertilizer Co Charleston, S. C. 

Chicora Fertilizer Co Charleston, S. C. 

Wilcox & Gibbes Fertilizer Co Charleston, S. C. 

Globe Phosphate Co Columbia, S. C. 

Columbia Phosphate Co Columbia. S. C. 

Greenville Fertilizer Co Greenville, S. C. 

The combined total output of superphosphates by these com- 
panies for the present year is estimated at about 400,000 tons.. 



The Phosphates of America. 61 

Assuming this quantity to require in round numbers 200,000 tons 
•of raw phosphate, and further assuming that the output of the 
latter will this year attain our estimated figure of 650,000 tons, as 
we believe it will, there remains an available surplus over local re- 
■quirements of 450,000 tons of phosphate of lime. Of this quantity 
about one-half may go to Great Britain and Germany and the 
balance will go coastwise to Richmond, Baltimore, Philadelphia 
and New York. 

There can be no doubt that, as we have already remarked, 
South Carolina rock must be regarded as a raw material of the 
first class in the manufacture of soluble and available phosphates, 
and that, as such, it is and will continue to be everywhere held in 
the highest esteem. In Europe it is generally used in combination 
with Belgian cretaceous phosphates and very high-grade Canadian 
apatites, and in this way yields results that cannot be surpassed by 
any other material as an all-round staple, uniform and reliable 
article. 

If we were asked to express an opinion in an off-hand way as 
to the probable extent and capacity of the yet untouched or unex- 
ploited deposits, we should hesitate to give any decided answer be- 
cause of the lack of sufficient data or reliable figures. From in- 
formation which we have been able to gather, however, from sour- 
ces in which wo have every reason to place the fullest confidence, 
the explored but still unexploited area covered by land and river de- 
posits embraces an area of no less than thirty miles. Regarding this 
as a mere approximation to the jjossible truth, we might venture, 
in the same spirit of speculation, to place the yield of this area at 
the present average of 750 tons to the acre. 

The conclusion drawn from these hypotheses would be that the 
State may be relied ujDon to still produce about 14,000,000 tons, 
and allowing for a continued average production and sale of, say, 
50,000 tons per month, either for local consumption or export trade, 
it would appear as if the mines would all be exhausted in about 
twenty-eight years from the present time. 

Whether the mining companies now in the field have or have 
not entertained this view of the matter, it is impossible to say, nor is 
it very material to the issue. The fact remains that the known avail- 
able and readily accessible deposits are all appropriated, and that 
no falling off in the demand for the product has yet been traceable 
to the influence of any other source of supply. As time rolls on, 
local manufacturing requirements cannot fail to increase in large 



62 The Phosphates of America. 

proportions, and we regard it as even highly probable that at no 
distant date this source of consumption will absorb all that can be 
produced, and thus while the present profitable nature of the min- 
ing operations will be maintained, there will be no balance avail- 
able for other markets. 



The Pliosphates of America, 63 



CHAPTER Y. 

THE PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF FLORIDA. 

Thk existence of nodular amorphous phosphate deposits in 
Florida is not a matter of recent discovery, for they had been 
found in various directions many years ago, but were never believed 
to be of sufficient importance either in quantity or quality to merit 
the serious attention of capitalists. Like many other of our natural 
resources, therefore, they remained long dormant and unthought 
of. 

The first tentative mining operations were commenced in the 
year 1888 by The Arcadia Phosphate Company, on a very small 
scale, in Peace River, and they met with such marked encourage- 
ment that many who had hitherto remained sceptically watching 
their efforts came into the same field, and the year 1889 saw the 
Peace River Phosphate Company and the De Soto Phosphate Com- 
pany dredging the river with an expensive modern plant. 

The unostentatious and cautious manner in which these corpo- 
rations conducted their business for some time prevented their 
movements and successes from being noised abroad, but when the 
attention of those in the immediate locality could tio longer be 
diverted from the facts, universal interest was aroused and pros- 
pectors went to work in all parts of the State. Discovery now fol- 
lowed discovery in rapid succession, and each new field was claimed 
to be of more value and importance than its predecessor. The 
land-owners became excited ; wealth " beyond the dreams of ava- 
rice " danced before their eyes and reposed under their feet. The 
local newspapers started a "boom" and all Florida was in the 
throe.'' of a wildly exaggerated and feverishly speculative phosphate 
fever. Lands which heretofore were valued at from |1.50 to |3^ 
per acre readily changed hands at |150 to $200 per acre, and many 
a " cracker homesteader " who went to bed a \)ooy man woke uj) in 
the morning to find himself a capitalist. 

While, however, it is undoubtedly a very good thing ta have 
big phosphate mines, very little use can be made of them without 
the necessary means for their exploitation, and money is still a rare 
commodity in the South. It hence became necessary to offer to 



€4 The Plios])liate8 of America. 

Northern capitalists a share in the benefits of the discovery, and 
this has led to the employment of many expert chemists and min- 
ing engineers. As one of the first of these to be called into the 
field, we have had occasion during the last two years to traverse 
every county on the Gulf of Mexico, from Tallahassee to Punta 
Gorda, and the first diflSculty that confronted us in our hunt for 
the phosphate treasure was the total absence of a correct topo- 
graphical or geological chart of the State. 

It had always been customary, so far as we can remember, to 
speak and think of Florida as a combination of impossible sand- 
banks and uninhabitable tropical swamps, and apart from the few 
adventurous "Yankees" who had "gone in" for orange culture, no 
one seemed to manifest any interest in its destiny and nothing 
seemed more unnecessary than a prolonged visit from the oflicers 
of the Geological Survey. Nothing had therefore been attempted 
by that body, and the only important scientific data to which we 
could turn were the old notes of Le Conte and Agassiz and the 
more recent j)aper which Professor Eugene A. Smith published in 
the American, Journal of Science in 1881. At the j^resent mo- 
ment the immense amount of capital promised to be involved in 
the development of Florida phosj^hates has awakened the govern- 
ment to the necessity for action, and several of its well-organized 
survey parties are in the field doing solid work that will eventually 
clear up many points now plunged in obscurity. 

The official public reports of these arduous investigations must, 
however, naturallj^ take a considerable time, and we are thus led 
to hope that a brief resume of the results of our own examinations 
will be acceptable, and assist in clearing away from the paths of 
others some of the embarrassing obstacles which we have had to 
encounter. 

The topograjihical aspect of Florida is that of a very low-lying 
and gently undulating peninsula ; its highest i:)oint being no more 
than 250 feet and the avei'age height about 80 feet above the 
level of the sea. 

The elevated points or ridges are composed entirely of sand 
and are covered with a very luxuriant growth of tall jjines. The 
depressions or valleys, esjjecially when situated along the coast, 
are composed of a mixture of calcareous marls and sand, from which 
outcrop, at irregular and frequent intervals, large and small bowl- 
ders of limestones, sandstones and phosphate rock. These valleys 
are principally known in the country as "hommock land," and are 




^;i=^ TO Kit W'^ 



<^ t^Z.jr O 7^ l^EJCI C O 





FLORIDA ROCK-PHOSPHATE MINING. 
ReraoTing overburden of sand by the " Gopher!' machine, Dunnellon Mines, Marion Co. 



Tltc Phosphates of America. G5 

gaid to be veiy fertile. AYhen uncultivated, however, they are 
covered Avith a dense wild growth of vegetation characteristic of 
the swamp. 

Without pausing to consider the climatic conditions, which are 
sufficiently well known and which, besides, are outside the scope 
of our work, and passing at once to the i)rominent geological as- 
pects, we may say that the entire State of Florida appears to us to 
be underlaid, at greatly varying depths, with upper eocene lime- 
stone rock, and that its first emergence must, in our opinion, be 
consequently dated from that period. We have based this opinion 
on the careful examination of many artesian wells that have been 
practised in several directions, and it is well sustained by the one 
at Lake Worth, w-hich was completed in June, 1890, and of which 
the following detailed particulars have been published by Mr. X. 
H. Darton, of the United States Geological Survey : 

0-400 feet. Sands with thin layers of semi-vitrified sand at 50 and 
60 feet. 

400-800 " Very fine-grained soft, greenish-gray quartz sand, con- 
taiaing occasional foraminifera and water-worn shell 
fragments. 

800-850 •' No sample. 

850-860 •• White sands, with abundant foraminifera of four or five 
species. 

860-904 " No sample. 

904-915 " Gray sands containing sharks' teeth, small water-worn 
shell and bone fragments, sea-urchin spines and lithi- 
fied sand fragments. 

915-1000 " No sample. 
1000-1213 " Samples at frequent intervals. Vicksburg limestone, 
containing orbitoides in abundance throughout, to- 
gether with occasional undeterminable fragments of 
molluscaa casts, corals and echinoderms. It is a 
creamy-white, hard, homogeneous limestone through- 
out. 

Nor do we rely upon the artesian wells alone, for the Vicks-- 
burg limestone also appears as an outcrop at the surface in many, 
localities, and has been specially noticed in Wakulla and Franklin 
counties, west of Tallahassee, in Marion and Citrus counties, in 
Tampa Bay, and on the banks of the Manatee and Caloosahatchee 
rivers. 

In the opinion of Mr. X. II. Darton, above mentioned, the jAos- 
phates of Florida belong to three formations, distinctly separate 
stratigraphically, and each represents a long interval of geologic 



66 The Pliosplmtes of America. 

time. The rock phosphates appear to be the deeply eroded rem- 
nants of the phosphatized surface of the middle tertiary limestone ; 
the conglomerate deposits overlie these limestones unconformably, 
and in the Gainesville region, at least, appear to he miocene in 
age, and the river drift deposits are apparently entirely subsequent 
to the great mantle of pleistocene white and gray sands which 
covers the entire peninsula to a greater or less depth. 

Excepting in its light color the rock phosphate is a physical 
counterpart of the brown limonite iron ores of the Appalachian 
limestone valleys, and the deposits have very similar structural 
relations. In a number of localities the massive phosphate grad- 
uates into the limestone, usually by short transitions, and many 
areas have been discovered in the phosphate belt and under the 
conglomerate in the Bartow region where the limestone is only par- 
tially phosphatized. In the mines at Dunellon the massive phos- 
phate is apparently continuous with the limestones, but there are 
occasional casts and impressions of the middle tertiary moUusca 
undoubtedly lying as they were originally dej^osited. Mr. Darton 
further says that the origin of the jjhosphate of lime is not defi- 
nitely known, but that it seems exceedingly probable that guano was 
the original source, and that the genesis of the deposits is similar 
to that of the phosphates in some of the West Indies. Two pro- 
cesses of deposition have taken j^lace, one the more or less complete 
replacement of the carbonate of lime by phosphate of lime, and the 
other a general stalactitic coating on the massive jihosphates, its 
cavities, etc. 

The apparent restriction of the rock-phosphate deposits to the 
western "ridge" of Florida may have some special bearing on their 
genesis, but at present no definite relationship is perceived. The 
aggregate amount of phosphate rock distributed in fragmentary 
condition in the various subsequent formations is very great, greater 
by far than the amount remaining in its original position, and it is 
possible that the area at one time included the greater part, if not 
all, of the higher jiortions of the State. As this region apparently 
constituted a long, narrow peninsula or archipelago during early 
miocene times, it is a reasonable tentative hypothesis that during 
this period guanos Avere deposited from which was derived the ma- 
terial for the phosjjhatization of the limestone, either at the same 
time or soon after, 

Mr. Walter B. Davidson, A.R.S.M., writing in the Engineering 
and Mining Journal on the probable origin of these phosphates, 




FLORIDA RiiCK-PIKiSPHATf: MIMNi,, 
Open cut in Cove Bend Phosphate Company's mine, Inverness, Citrus Co. 




FORIDAL ROCK-PHOSPHATE MINING. 
Working in " boulder " material after removal of top soil. 



The Phosphaies of America. 67 

suggests that at the close of the cenozoic period the waters of 
the ocean were probably more phosphatic than they are now. 

In these shallow warm seas there lived myriads of shell-fish, 
many secreting phosj^hate as Avell as carbonate of lime, as is shown 
by the analysis of a shell of lingnla ovalis quoted by Dana as con- 
taining 85. 79 per cent, of phosphate of lime. Although no doubt 
much of this phosj^hate Avas acquired by accretion at a subsequent 
period, the fish-shells of these geological epochs were undoubtedly 
more phosjihatic than those of the present era. Fishes of all 
kinds teemed in these waters, died, and their bones, Avhile mostly 
disappearing, served to increase the amount of phosphate of lime 
in the limestone. 

Gradually the shores emerged from the seas, and even while 
they rose came the great geologic era of semi-recent geology — the 
glacial epoch. 

The cold of this epoch, as we know, drove all and every living 
creature which could travel southward, always soiithward. The 
strongest survived the longest. Some sought the swani2:)S and warm 
estuaries of the Carolinas, but numbers were pushed to the south- 
ern limit, and the great mammal horde of the tertiary epoch flocked 
to the swamps and estuaries of Florida. There they died — some 
from want of food, some killed by the strongest, some drowned, 
some of natural death, but most from the terrible cold wave. The 
bones of these animals lay there in myriads ; some were preserved, 
some rotted. 

At this time also the shallow sea was swarming with sharks, 
manatee, whales and other denizens of tropic waters, many of them 
also driven south by the change in the temperature in the northern 
latitudes; and their bones and teeth added to the "Valley of 
Bones " which we now find along this southern shore. 

Then came the swing of the thermometric pendulum, and the 
Champlain period was an era of melting of glaciers and of ice, 
when most American rivers were fifty times the size they are to- 
day, and after that, man first left records of his sojourn here. 

The Champlain floods Avere not so severe in their action in the 
South as in the North, but no doubt it was during this jDcriod 
that the Peace River pebble-formation and the soft-rock phos- 
phates were largely deposited. 

While these quaternary changes Avere taking place, Florida was 
still slowly but surely rising, and denudation began. Then once 
more the slightly elevated peninsula gradually sank under sea- 



68 The Pliosjjhates of America. 

level, and it was covered by successive deposits of sand, varied Ly 
clays, the beach being the red clays of northern Florida and south- 
ern Georgia. 

Before this took place, however, an economic change bearing on 
this subject had occurred. In many places the limestone, then the 
dry land, had been leached by the rain-water even as chalk to-day 
can be leached, and is leached, l)y water containing more or less 
carbonic acid. The highly 2)hos})hatic limestone was denuded and 
dissolved, the l)icarbonate of lime carried away in solution and the 
more insoluble ])hosphate in suspension. In the stiller Avaters of 
the estuaries and in the wider river beds (the river had the same 
course as now, broadly speaking) the phos})hate of lime in suspen- 
sion was deposited as an alluvial secondary deposit. Tliis was 
mixed, of course, in many places with lime, sand and clay brought 
down by the same Avaters. 

While all this was in action, above the limestone were the bones 
of the various beasts and fishes killed by the awful cold and by 
overcrowding. Some of these bones helped by their decomposition 
to add to the phosphate of lime present in the underlying strata, 
and some were pseudomorphed into fossils of phosphate of lime, 
just as we find them to-day in vast quantities ; some were washed 
down and were deposited with the phosphatic mud, and some are 
still in situ in the clay overlying the limestone or mixed with the 
jshell reefs and beaches. 

Our own conclusions took precedence of both these opinions, and 
were jjublished in the Eitgineerhifj and Mining Journal oi August 
23, 1890. We then argued and still believe that during the miocene 
submergence there was deposited upon the uj^per eocene limestones, 
more especially in the cracks or fissures resulting from their drying 
ujD, a soft, finely disintegrated calcareous sediment or mud. 

The gradual evaporation of these miocene waters brought about 
the formation, })rincipally in the neighborhood of the rock cavities 
and fissures, of large and small estuaries. These estuaries were re- 
plete, swarming with life and vegetable matter — fish, molluscs, rep- 
tiles and marine plants. They were, besides, heavily charged with 
gases and acids, and their continuous concentration ultimately in- 
duced a multiplicity of readily conceivable processes of decompo- 
sition and final metamorphism. 

In our opinion they constitute the origin of oiir Florida phos- 
phate of lime, and disregarding all other hypotheses, Ave consider 
that Ave are practically contemplating — 





•**«' 



mmmsmmmmaB^mmm^ 



FLORIDA ROCK-PHOSPHATE MINES. 

Remarkable deposit of "diift" or "gravel" phosphate at Anthony. One cubic yard yields about 

600 pounds washed material, averaging seventy-six per cent, phosphate of lime and four per cent. 

oxides of iron and alumina. 



The Pliosphates of America. 69 

1. A foundation of ui)per eocene limestone lOcks very much 
cracked up and fissured, the cracks having a general trend north- 
east and southwest. 

2. Irregular beds, pockets or banks of miocene deposits, dried 
and hardened by exposure, and alternately calcareous, sandy or 
marly ; generally phosphatic, and sometimes entirely made up of 
decomposed organic debris, the phosphoric acid being combined 
with various bases (lime, magnesia, iron, alumina, etc.). 

After the disappearance of the miocene sea there came some 
gigantic disturbances of the strata. There were upheavals and de- 
pressions. The underlying limestones were probably again split 
up, and the miocene deposit was broken and hurled from the sur- 
face into yawning gaps and from one fissure to another. 

No-sv came the pliocene periods, or end of the tertiary, and then 
the seas of quaternary age, with their deposits and drifts of shells, 
sands, clays, marls, bowlders and other transported materials, and 
the accompanying alternate or concurrent influences of cold, heat 
and pressure. 

If we take the whole of these phenomena broadly into consider- 
ation, Ave must be led to conclude that those portions of the phos- 
phatic miocene crust which did not fall into permanent limestone 
fissures or caverns at the time of the disturbance of the strata, be- 
came at length very thoroughly broken up and disintegrated. They 
were rolled about and intermixed Avith sand, clay and marls, and 
were deposited with them in various mounds or depressions in con- 
formity with the violence of the waters, or with the uneven struct- 
ure of the surface to which they were transported. 

Occasionally this drifting mass found its Avay into very low- 
lying portions of the country, say into those regions where consider- 
able depression was brought about by the sinking and settling of 
the recently disturbed mass. At other times it was rolled to and 
deposited on slightly higher points. In the first of these cases Ave 
find a vast and complete agglomeration, comparable to an immense 
pocket, of broken-u]) phosphate rock, finely divided phosphate dehriK, 
sands, clays and marls, all heterogeneously mixed in together. In 
the second case Ave find the phosphate in large bowlders, sometimes 
weio-hing several tons, and intermixed with but relatively small 
proportions of any foreign substances. 

Considering these phenomena, Ave reach the conclusion that the 
features in the Florida deposits of phosphate to be most particu- 
larly emphasized, are that the formation consists essentially of — 



70 Tlie FliospUates of America. 

1. Original pockets or cavities in the limestone filled with hard 
and soft rock phosphates and debris. 

2. Mounds or beaches, rolled iip on the elevated points, and 
chiefly consisting of huge bowlders of j^hosphate rock. 

3. Drift or disintegrated rock, covering immense areas, chiefly 
in Polk and Ilillsboro counties, and underlying Peace River and 
its tributaries. 

As we have already remarked, the work of exploration or j^ros- 
pecting has now extended all over the State in each of these vari- 
eties of the formation ; actual exjiloitation on the large scale by 
regular mining and hydraulic methods has also been commenced 
at various points ; and we have been able to make a very careful 
study of the workings on several occasions, with the result that the 
theories we first formulated have been in every way confirmed. 

In several of the mines, notably in those of Marion and Ci- 
trus counties, there are immense deposits of phosphatic material, 
proved, by actual exjteriincntal work, to extend in many cases over 
uninterrupted areas of several acres. The deposits in each case have 
shown themselves to be combinations of the "original pocket" and 
the "mound" formation, and the superincumbent material, or over- 
burden, is principally sand, and may be fairly said to have an aver- 
age depth of about 10 feet. The phosphate immediately under- 
lying it is sometimes in the form of enormous bowlders of hard 
rock, cemented together with clay, and sometimes in the form of a 
white plastic or friable mass resembling kaolin, and probably pro- 
duced by the natural disintegration of the hard rock by rolling, 
attrition or concussion. The actual thickness of the dej)osits is. 
too variable to be comjDuted Avith any accuracy into an average, 
but in one case which specially interested us, the depth is 50 feet, 
and only a little over two acres of the land have already yielded 
more than 20,000 tons of good ore, without signs of exhaustion. 

Directly outside the limits of these combined " pockety " and 
" mound " formations the deposits of phosphate seem to abruptly 
terminate, and to give jjlace to an unimportant drift, which some- 
times crops out at the surface, and Avhich may be followed in all 
directions over the immediate vicinity without leading to another 
pocket of exploitable value. 

Since the same geological phenomena are prevalent in nearly 
every section of the country, with the exceptions of Polk and 
Hillsboro counties, where they are somewhat modified, we consider 
ourselves, in view of these facts, warranted in declaring that the 




S =3 

o I 



The Phosphates of America. 



71 



Florida phosphates of high grade occur in beds of an essentially- 
pockety, extremely capricious, uneven and deceptive nature. 

Sometimes the pockets will develop into enormous and deep 
quarries, and probably yield fabulous quantities of various mer- 
chantable qualities. At other times they will be entirely super- 
ficial, or will contain the phosphate in such a mixed condition as 
to render profitable exploitation impossible. 

An excellent, and indeed typical, exami^le of this superficiality 
is afforded by one of our recent examinations, in which the geo- 
logical conditions did not differ in any essential particular from 
those described. The area investigated may be thus represented : 





5120 acres of land. 




A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 



Each division representing 640 acres. 

Very fine phosphate indications were scattered more or less all 
over this tract, sometimes in the form of big bowlders outcropping 
at the surface, sometimes in the form of small debris, brought up 
from beloAV by the mole or the gopher. A local " expert " had es- 
timated that it contained millions of tons, and our own first im- 
pressions of it were of the highly sanguine order. A systematic 
exploration was, however, at once instituted and carried out ; 
first by boring all over the tract with a twenty-foot auger, and 
then by sinking confirmatory pits at short intervals to a depth of 
15 to 20 feet, according to the plan described in the chapter on 
South Carolina. 

The result of our work was extremely disappointing, and may 
be briefly summarized thus : 

A. — No phosphate in workable quantities. 

B. — A small basin or pocket of good phosphate, covering an area of 
about 15 acres. 

C. — No phosphate in workable quantities. 

D. — No phosphate in workable quantities. 

E. — Large quantities on surface, leading to a very large pocket, cover- 
ing about 35 acres. Very much mixed-up material, principally 
phosphate of low grade. 

F. — No phosphate in workable quantities. 



72 The Phospliates of America. 

G. — No phosphate in workable quantities.. 

H. — The highest point in the tract — very densely grown, big- bowlders 
of phosphate and sandy conglomerate on surface. Fifteen 
small pockets of phosphate, ending in limestone at a depth 
of thirteen feet. 

The total acreage covered by these widely scattered phosphate 
DEPOSITS was set down at eighty-three acres, and the character, 
quantity and composition of the phosphate itself, as shown by 
the pits dug and by the material extracted from them, were es- 
timated after experiment to be as follows : 

character and quantity of phosphate bed. 
Bowlder material, large and small, after 

screening 13 per cent, of the mass. 

Debris and whitish phosphate, soft and 

plastic , 29 " " " 

Sand, clay, flints and waste 58 " " " 

100 

AVERAGE ANALYTICAL VALUE OF THE PHOSPHATES (AFTER SUN-DRYING). 

Boidders. Debris, etc. 

Pliosphoric anhydride (P2O5) 37.00 30.00 

Oxides of iron and alumina (clay) 4.25 7.50 

After this analysis of the bowlder material had been made, the 
remaining lumps Avere all broken up with a hammer into pieces 
averaging \^ inches in size and veiy carefully washed, with con- 
stant shaking on a fourteen-mesh screen held under a stream of 
water. After being thoroughly dried in the sun, the washed ma- 
terial was put through a hand-crusher, then ground to the fineness 
of seventy-mesh, and submitted to analysis. The results, which 
have a most important bearing on the vexed question as to the form 
of combination in which the iron and alumina of these phosphates 
chiefly occur, were in this case as follows : 

Phosphoric anhydride (P0O5) 38.10 

Oxides of iron and alumina 1 . 73 

The thickness of the phosphate bed varied in different jilaces 
from 3^ to 27 feet, but was found to have an average of about 8 
feet. Assuming that this thickness would yield, say, 5000 tons to 
the acre (a conservative computation), we reach a probable total of 
415,000 tons for the entire tract, of which, according to the experi- 
ments summarized above, about fifty-Jive thousand tons might be 
high-grade "bowlder," containing, say, eighty j^er cent, of bone 




g I 

< o 

? '3. 

O - 

B ■= 

d, .„ 

« s 

o s 

M - 

^ 3 



The Phosphates of America. 73 

pbospliate, and about oue himdred and ticenty-five thousand ions 
debris and seconds, containing from sixty to sixty-five per uent. 
of bone j^hosphate. 

The capricionsness exhibited in this instance is not at ail ex- 
cejitional or singular, but has been confirmed in several others, and 
it is not quoted in any deprecatory sense, but as an example bf the 
necessity for exercising unusual care and discretion when .naking 
expert examinations. 

In the case of the "pebble" or "drift" deposits this caution 
needs not perhaps to be so extremely precise, for, as we have already 
stated, these are marked by unusual regularity in the chief centres 
of their occurrence. The extensive area in which they have been 
found may be roughly said to take its point of departure in Polk 
County, a little to the south of Bartow, and thence, with a gradually 
nai-rowing tendency, to practically continue to within a very short 
range of Charlotte Harbor. 

As will be seen from the map, the country is very flat and 
swampy ; is intersected at frequent intervals by the Aiafia, Mana- 
tee, Peace and other rivers, and by numerous small rivulets and 
streams. 

Pit-sinking and boring is now going on over an area of many 
hundreds of miles, and so far as we have been able to ascertain, the 
prospectors have succeeded in demonstrating that this section of 
Florida is virtuaUy underlaid vnth a nodular phoxphate stratum 
of a thickness varying from a few inches to thirty feet, CDtd covered 
by an, overburden that may be fairly averaged at about eight feet. 

The actiial chief working centre for " pebble " phosphates is 
Peace Rivei*, which rises in the high lake lands of Polk County 
and flows rapidly southward into the Gulf of Mexico. Its course 
is extremely irregular, and its bottom is a constant succession of 
shallows and deep basins. 

Lakes Tsala-Opopka and Chillicohatchee and Pains and Whid- 
den creeks are its chief tributaries and the main sources of its i)hos- 
phate deposits ; the pebbles being washed out from their banks 
and borne along their beds by the torrential summer rains. 

The exploitation of the pebbles is 2:)erformed, as illustrated, by 
means of a ten-inch centrifugal steam suction pump ])laced upon a 
barge. The pipe of the pump, having been adjusted by ropes and 
pulleys, is plunged ahead from tlie deck into the water. The mix- 
ture of sand and phosphate sucked up by it is brought into revolving- 
screens of varying degrees of fineness, Avhence the sand is washed 



74 Tlie Pliosphates of America. 

back into the river. The cleaned jjebbles are dischai'ged from the 
screens into scows, at the rate of about twelve tons per hour, and 
are floated down to the " works," where they are taken up by an 
elevator to a drying-room and dried by hot air, screened once more, 
and are then ready for market. The total cost of raising, washing, 
drying, screening and loading on the cars in execution of orders, 
is variously estimated at from 50 cents to |2 per ton ; but from 
special information recently afforded to us by one of the largest 
operators we are enabled to place it at |1.40, and this, to the best 
of our knowledge and belief, is the lowest yet recorded in the 
world's history of phosphate-mining 

The pebbles, when freed from impurities and dried, are of a 
dark blue color, and are hard and smooth, varying in size from a 
grain of rice to about one inch in diameter. Their origin is proved 
by the microscope to be entirely organic, and they are intimately 
mixed up with the bones and teeth of numerous extinct species of 
animals, birds and fish. 

There can be no doubt that these river deposits all proceed 
from the banks of " drift " situated on the higher lands in Polk 
County, and as a proof of it, if we take Lakeland and Bartow as 
the centre of these " drift " beds, we shall find that the " pebbles " 
are all of the same size, and only differ in that they are of a lighter 
color than those of the river, and that they are imbedded in a 
matrix of sand and clay, to which they frequently bear the propor- 
tion of about twenty per cent, by weight. 

Their separation from this matrix by most of the companies 
now working is effected in a very crude manner and on a great 
variety of jDlans. One of the largest concerns in Polk County em- 
ploys a floating dipper dredge, the use of which, it claims, is natu- 
rally indicated by the fact that in this very low-lying section of 
the State, water springs a few feet below the soil, and thus enables 
the dredge to work in a canal which it deepens and extends as it 
removes the material. The entire mass, matrix and all, is brought 
up to the surface by the dredge and dropped into a species of dis- 
integrator or crusher. Thence it passes on into a revolving washer 
mounted on the same barge. From the washer, the matrix and 
water return to the canal, while the clean nodules are carried by 
a spiral conveyer to a steam-heated dryer on another barge ; from 
the dryer they fall into a rcA^olving screen, w^hich removes any 
remaining particles of adhering sand, and the now marketable 
phosphate is caught up by elevators and delivered on board rail- 



The Phosphates of America. 75 

"way cars standing on a track parallel with the canal. We have 
been informed that the actual capacity of this plant is 300 tons a 
day, and that a car-load of twenty tons can be raised, Avashed, 
dried and loaded by it for market in forty minutes at no greater 
cost than that of the river pebbles. We have, however, considered 
it necessary to accept this statement Avith due reserve. 

The custom so long prevalent in South Carolina of imposing a 
royalty npon all phosphates removed from navigable rivers or 
streams has redounded so much to the profit of that State that the 
Florida authorities have decided to avail themselves of a similar 
method of taxation in order to swell their meagre revenues. A 
law regulating this kind of mining was accordingly recently passed 
by the Legislature and has now been signed by the Governor. 

Under its provisions the Governor, Comptroller and Attorney- 
General are constituted a board of phosphate commissioners, Avhich 
board shall have the management and control of all phosphates in 
the navigable waters of the State. The board will appoint a phos- 
phate inspector at a salary not to exceed f 1,500 per annum, Avho 
will act as its executive officer. 

On all the phosphates taken from navigable waters within the 
application of the law a royalty of 50 cents per ton will be col- 
lected when the j^hosphatic material analyzes "fifty per cent, or 
less, and not to exceed fifty-five per cent., bone jihosphate of lime ; " 
75 cents per ton for " material analyzing over fifty-five per cent, 
and not exceeding sixty per cent.," and " $1 per ton for every ton 
■of phosphate rock, etc., analyzing in excess of sixty per cent, bone 
2jhosphate of lime." 

Account is to be rendered to the board of commissioners and 
j^ayment of royalt}'' made to the State quarterly. 

The State grants the right to persons, either natural or corpo- 
rate, to mine the navigable waters of the State within certain well- 
defined limits, in no case to exceed ten miles by course of stream, 
for a period not to exceed five years, preference being given, how- 
ever, to riparian owners and to -those Avho have commenced to 
mine in good faith before the passage of the act. 

The bill further enacts that no person or persons shall be per- 
mitted to mine the bed of any navigable water of the State until 
he or they shall have first filed Avith the board of phosphate com- 
missioners a bond, Avith good and sufficient sureties to be aj^proved 
by the board and in such sum as the board shall deem proper. 
Mining must begin within six months from date of contract and 



76 Tlic Phosphates of America, 

continue to the full term of the contract, unless the phos])hate or 
j^hosphatic deposit be previously exhausted. 

The passage of this law has, of course, elicited a great deal of 
opposition, and will undoubtedly^ lead to litigation between the 
State and many of the companies which claim vested rights in the 
river deposits. A considerable number of these companies are, how- 
ever, unaffected by its provisions which do not api:)ly in cases of navi- 
gable streams or jjarts thereof that are not meandered, and the own- 
ership of the lands embracing which, is vested in a legal purchaser. 

With the extremely low cost of jjroduction of the "pebble" ma- 
terial, howeverj it is hardly conceivable that so trifling a tax as- 
that imposed by the new law can be regarded as a burden, or that 
it will have the least injurious effect upon the progress and profits 
of the industry. Nor will the present trouble between the Coosaw 
Mining Comj^any and the State of South Carolina fail to facilitate 
and hasten the introduction of the new material, and when once 
this introduction has been thoroughly and favorably secured, it 
will soon win for itself the good opinion of European as well aa 
of domestic superphosi)hate manufacturers. 

The chemical composition of Florida phosphates, and more 
especially of those known as "hard rock" or "bowlder," is far 
from being constant or reliable, as would be naturally anticipated 
in such an irregular and varied formation as we have attempted 
to describe. Nor is it more uniform in its physical aspect, for 
while in some regions it is perfectly white, in others it is blue, yel- 
low or brown. In many instances it is practically free from iron 
and alumina, but in not a few districts it is heavily loaded with 
these commercially objectionable constituents. A lai'ge proportion 
of the land rock is very soft when damp, but becomes so hard 
when dried that it has long been used by the natives, ignorant of 
its other values, as a foundation or building stone. 

For the purposes of general illustration we present the follow- 
ing averages, selected from the results of several hundreds of our 
complete analyses, made either in Florida or New York. The 
samples, in every case, were taken from exploratoiy pits in differ- 
ent counties, and were marked before leaving the ground with full 
details of their origin. We have classed them as — 

1. Bowlders of hard-rock phosphate, or cleaned high-grade ma- 
terial. 

2. Bowlders and debri.% or unselected material, merely freed 
from dirt. 




o = 

o ^ 

si o 




■i 

il 






I 



The Phosphates of America. 77 

3. Soft white pliospliate, in which no bowKlers are found. 

4. Pebble phosphate from Peace River as sent to market. 

5. Pebble phosphate from Polk County drift beds, washed and 



screened. 



Bowlders (carefully selected, 120 samples).. . 

Bowlders -and debris (237 samples) 

Soft white phosphate (148 samples) 

Pebble from Peace River (84 sampbs) 

Pebble from drift-beds, Polk Co. (92 samples) . 



PHOS- 
PHATE 
OF LIME. 


OXIDES 
OF IRON 
AND AL- 
UMINA. 


SILICA 
AND SIL- 
ICATES 


CAR- 
BONIC 
ACID. 


80.49 


2.25 


4.20 


2.10 


74.90 


4.19 


9.25 


1.90 


65.15 


9.20 


5.47 


4.27 


61.75 


2.90 


14.20 


3.60 


67.25 


3.00 


10.40 


.1.70 



In working or quarrying the "hard-rock" or "high-grade 
bowlder" deposits, the details of most importance are the careful 
selection by conscientious and capable superintendents of the dif- 
ferent qualities, and the accurate samj:)ling and analyses of the 
different piles before shipment. There is at present a less remuner- 
ative market in this country than in Eurojje for the richest grades, 
and it is therefore probable that for some time to come the entire 
production of hard rock will be exported. As we have already 
said and shall more fully explain later on, the majority of foreign 
manufacturers will make no contracts for a raw material which 
contains a higher maximum than three per cent, of oxides of iron 
and alumina. To make shipments within this limit must conse- 
quently be the aim of the miners who would establish a good rep- 
utation, and nothing but experience in actual work, harmoniously 
conducted between the mine and the laboratory, can be relied upon 
in the great majority of cases to accomplish it. To ourselves this 
matter has been a source of constant preoccupation, and in the 
mines with which we are professionally connected we have now 
succeeded in reducing objectionable constituents to a minimum by 
adopting the following general scheme of work : 

The pockets are located by boring and by confirmatory pits, and 
the results of these operations are daily transferred to a map. The 
pits are carefully sampled, foot by foot, as they go down, and the 
various qualities of "bowlder," "soft white," "gravel," etc., are 
sent to the laboratory with ample details of their origin. The re- 
sults of the analyses are daily placed upon the map, side by side 
with the other details of the survey. 

We thus finally acquire a geological and chemical map of our 



78 The FJwsphates of Ainerica. 

property, can form an approximately correct idea of the quantity 
and the quality of material at our command, and can decide with 
intelligence upon the best points at which to commence industrial 
operations on the desired scale. 

Our plant is so constructed as to enable us to crush the whole 
of our rock material to a suitable size, say, 1^-inch ; to j^ass our en- 
tire outj)ut through washers and screens similar to those we have 
described in the chapter on South Carolina ; and to finally dry it 
by hot air, avoiding direct contact with fire. The cost of produc- 
ing one ton of clean phosphate rock under these conditions, as 
shown by our practical working exj^erience, averages about $5, and 
from the fact that the method was based upon and has fully justified 
the results of a very lengthy series of laboratory experiments, we 
are enabled to claim for it — 

1. That, the product being reduced to a uniform size, 
the difficulties hitherto experienced in obtaining fair and con- 
cordant samples on shipment and arrival are materially less- 
ened, if not entirely obviated. 

2. That the objectionable iron and alumina, being nearly 
always lyresent in the original samjyle in the form of clay 
which is held and secreted in the interstices or cracks of the 
rock, are nearly all removed by the water and the agitation 
during the washing process. 

On somewhat similar lines to these, a very ingenious and prac- 
tical as well as economical method of mining and preparing the 
land-rock phosphates is that devised by the Jeffrey Manufacturing 
Company, of Columbus, Ohio, and now being used by some of the 
larger companies. The rock is hoisted from the quarries by a der- 
rick, delivered to a crusher, and thence into a system of screens. 
The first is a dry screen, the second a washing screen and the 
third a finishing, or rinsing screen ; and the rock is delivered from 
one wet screen to the other by short elevators, and then taken from 
the last screen by slow-motion elevator, so as to drain oflf as much 
of the water as possible. It is then delivered at the top of a fur- 
nace having interlapjjing shelves, under which the flues conducting 
the products of combustion to the stack are carried. While de- 
scending from one of these shelves to the other through the hopper- 
like aperture to the furnace, the rock is either heated to the neces- 
ary degree to dry it, or, by a retaining device at the bottom, may 
be kept until thoroughly calcined, after which it is delivered hot 
to the foot of an elevator. The flue connecting with this elevator 




FLORIDA ROCK-PHOSPHATE MINING. 
View of the phosphate-drying machine in use at the Ocala and Blue River Phosphate Company's mine, 

Elliston, Citrus Co. 



vis f-:,"-?^ ■ 








_*iC:* . t'S 




The PJiospJmtes of America. 79- 

and furnace is arranged with three conduits, one for the smoke 
and heat, one for the buckets of the elevator, and one for the dry- 
air draughto Tlie partition between the smoke and combustion 
flues and that of the elevator is thin iron after reaching the height 
of the brick-work. The buckets are constructed of screen wire, so 
that the escape of vapor from the heated rock is impeded as little 
as possible. The partition between the bucket-flue and the dry- 
air flue is perforated at intervals, so that the draught of dry air 
will produce the effect of drawing off the vapor from the buckets 
of heated rock as they pass upward through the elevator-flue. The 
movement of the elevator is so slow that about twenty minutes 
from the starting at the bottom, or boot end, are required to de- 
liver a bucket of phosjjhate-rock at the top ; after the delivery is 
once commenced, however, it is continuous. At the top, the chain 
of buckets passes through a third, or drying-screen, which revolves 
in a square, heated chamber, shown in the illustration at the top of 
the dryer-frame. In passing through this dry screen, all the sand 
or material that is not rinsed or Avashed out of the interstices and 
from the clay deposit of the rock, is knocked off in a sej^arate par- 
tition of the hopper underneath the heated chamber. The phos- 
phate-rock is delivered, as shown in space broken away, to the 
hopper just underneath the open end of the screen at the rear of 
the dryer, and is delivered, it will be observed, in chutes from this 
altitude to the storage-bins in the warehouse, or on board cars at a 
railroad track, the buckets continuing their course down the in- 
clined flite to the boot, to receive the continuous flow of phosphate. 
There is a draught of hot, dry air thrown up this return flue, that 
meets the phosphate being delivered from the dry screen, and 
carries off what remaining vapor there may be arising from the 
heated rock through an opening into the stack above. 

The operation of this system of machinery is automatic after 
leaving the crusher, and every motion of the rock is in the direc- 
tion required to reach storage or shipment. The water supply at 
different mines, requiring different arrangements of pumping ma- 
chinery, the latter has not been included in our drawing. 

From the dry-screen, running back to the waste or culm pile, 
there is a conveyor which relieves the dry-screen of the sand and 
material that would otherwise accumulate beneath it. Where the 
phosphate is found in a clay matrix, it is not practicable to use a 
dry screen successfully; the latter is therefore in such cases elimi- 
nated, and a img introduced in place of it, similar to the machine 



80 The Phosphaies of America, 

used in washing hematite ores and pugging clay. To prevent the 
clay from balling \\\) in the revolving screens, it is thoroughly soit- 
ened and disintegrated ; and when this has been done it wall easily 
wash out of the ])hosphate, the succeeding stages of the process 
being the same as in handling dry rock. 

AVith the mere addition of a dredging apparatus, this method of 
exploitation is equally applicable to the "pebble" and river-de- 
posits, the process of drying, elevating and storing being quite as 
economical and efficient as in the case of the hard rock. 

Our opening remarks on the speculative character of the 
" boom" are justified by the following partial list of the mining 
companies formed in Florida for various purposes within the past 
two years : 

Name. Address. Capital. 

Arcadia Phosphate Co De Soto County ; office, Sa- 
vannah, Ga 

Peace River Phosphate Co De Soto County, Arcadia.Fla.; 

principal office, New York.. $300,000 

De Soto Phospliate Co Zolfo, De Soto County ; of- 
fice, Atlanta, Ga 250,000 

South Florida Phosphate Co Liverpool, De Soto County. . 240,000 

Charlotte Harbor Phosphate Co . . Fort Ogden, De Soto County 

Boca Grande Phosphate Co De Soto County ; deposit 

worked on Caloosahachie 

Eiver 250,000 

Lee County Phosphate Co Fort Mj^ers, Lee County ; de- 
posit on Caloosahachie Riv- 
er 250,000 

Fort Meade Pliosphate, Fertilizer, 
Land and Improvement Co Fort Meade, Po k County 50,000 

Homeland Pebble Phosphate Co . . Homeland, Polk County 100,000 

Homeland Mining and Land Co . . Homeland, Polk County 120,000 

Black River Phosphate Co Clay County ... 200,000 

Pharr Phosphate Co Bartow, Polk County 

Jackson and Peace River Plios- 
phate Co Apopka, De Soto County 1,000,000 

Tampa Phosphate Co Tampa, Hillsboro County. . . 25,000 

Prospect Pliosphate Co Dunnellon, Marion County 

E. C. Evans Mining Co Dunnellon, Marion County 

Glenn Alice Phosphate Co Bay Hill, Sumpter County 

Dunnellon Phosphate Co Dunnellon, Marion County. . . 1,250,000 

Sterling Phosphate Co Hernando County 8,000,000 

Withlacoochee River Pho.sphute 
Co Panasofkee, Ma-rion County... 400,000 

The Early Bird Phosphate Co Marion County 500,000 

The New York Phosphate Co Marion County 4,000,000 



•S-Q 


•s -s 












1 


» 




[ 


■tl 1 


M 












u 








<^^ 


f^ 


D 








o 


fi 


o 

X 








>. 




cc 










> 








1 









Q M" Q H ^ K Q 



CO 



ffi 




s « 



The Phosi^liates of America. 81 

^ame. Address. Capital. 

The Eagle Phosphate Co Marion County 3,000,000 

The Florida Phosphate Co., Lim- 
ited Phosphoria, Polk County 1,000,000 

Whittaker Phosphate and Ferti- 
lizer Co Homeland, Polk County 500,000 

Virginia-Florida Phosphate Co Fort Meade, Polk County 120,000 

The Gulf Phosphate Mining and 

Manufacturing Co Liverpool, De Soto County. . 240,000 

The Terraceia Phosphate Co Works in Manatee and Polk 

counties 1,000,000 

The Lay Phosphate Co Bartow 575,000 

The Moore & Tatum Phosphate Co.. Bartow, Polk County 100,000 

The Cove Bend Land Phosphate 

Co Tompkinsville, Citrus County 200,000 

Albion Phosphate Mining and 

Chemical Co Baltimore, Md 500,000 

Belleview Phosph'ite Co Jacksonville 600,000 

The Florida Rock Phosphate Co . . . Citrus County 125,000 

Alachua Phosphate Co Gamesville 300,000 

Alalia River Phosphate Associa- 
tion Bartow 100,000 

Alalia River Phosphate Co Bartow 1,000,000 

Alalia Phosphate Co Jacksonville 35,000 

Albion Phosphate Co Gainesville 300,000 

Albion Mining and Mfg. Co Gainesville 300,000 

American Mining and Imp't Co . . . Bartow 1 200,000 

Anglo-American Phosphate Co Ocala 400,000 

Archer Phosphate Co Gainesville 100,000 

Atlantic and Gulf Phosphate Co. . . Bartow, Fla., and Charleston, 

S. C 10.000 

Berkley Phosphate Co Bartow 40,000 

Farmers' Co-operative Mfg. Co, of 

Georgia 200,000 

Florida Blue Rock Phosphate Co. . Bowling Green 150,000 

Florida Phosphate and Fertilizer 

Co Tallahassee 100,000 

Florida Phosphate Co Ocala 210 000 

Gainesville Phosphate Co Gainesville 50,000 

Globe Phosphate Mining and Mfg. 

Co Ocala 2,000,000 

Great Southern Phosphate Co 30 000 

Ichetucknee Phosphate Co Jacksonville 30,000 

Jacksonville and Santa Fe Phos- 
phate Co. 500,000 

La Fayette Land and Phosphate 

Co AjDalacliicola.. 10,000 

Lake City Land and Timber Co 50,000 



82 Tlie Phosphates of America. 

j\'ame. Address. Capital. 

Lake City Pliospliate Co Lake City $100,000 

Little Bros. Fertilizer Co South Jacksonville 100,000 

Madison Phosphate Co Madison 50,000 

Magnolia Phosphate Co Gainesville 50,000 

Marion Phosphate Co Savannah 5,000,000 

Marion and Citrus Phosphate Co 200,000 

North and South Alafia River 

Phosphate Co 360,000 

Ocala and Blue River Phosphate 

Co Ocala 780,000 

Orang-e County Phosphate Co Orlando.. , 10,000 

Panasofkee Phosphate Co Ocala 100,000 

Paola Creek Phosphate Co Bartow 150,000 

Peninsular Phosphate Co Ocala 300,000 

Standard Phosphate Co Orlando 500,000 

Standard Phosphate Co Ocala 2,000,000 

Stonewall Phosphate Co Jacksonville. 500,000 

Waukulla Lumber and Phosphate 

Co . , Tallahassee 10,000 

Waukulla Phosphate Co Crawfordsville 10,000 

Wekiva Phosphate Co Sanford 10,000 

Zeigler Phosphate Co Ocala 25,000 

Columbian Phosphate Co Jacksonville 

Land Pebble Phosjihate Co Bartow 

This list is, we repeat, only a partial one, and the number of 
companies is increasing daily. If, instead of the meaningless 
^^ paper capitaV which most of them represent, fifty-odd millions 
of dollars were really at stake, the fact would excite serious anxiety. 
We should be compelled to show that the amount of phosphate to 
be mined and disposed of at a profit in order to ])ay a five-per-cent. 
dividend on the investment would surpass the total consumptive 
capacity of the entire world. Fortunately no such question is nec- 
essary; we know that the " capital " is merely nominal; that many of 
the companies are mere " mushrooms," and that, in brief, this phase 
of the question will regulate itself. 

From all that has preceded it will probably have been gathered 
that, in our opinion, Florida phosphate-mining will prove extremely 
profitable to those who purchase and work its fields with judgment, 
but that it will as certainly turn out in the highest degree disas- 
trous to those who jDurchase on insufficient or incomplete examina- 
tion and allow themselves to be led away by their excited first im- 
pressions. The interior of the country is still practically unsettled, 
and travelling is attended by some difficulties and much inconven- 







2 2 



~i -3 




^ s 



Tlie Phosj)hafes of America. 83 

ience. The negvo labor, which forms ninety-five per cent, of all 
that is used in the mines, is cheap, but is not very good and is far 
from plentiful. There are no wagon roads suitable for transporta- 
tion purjDOses, and the railroad facilities are altogether inadequate, 
the companies being at the present time very poorly provided 
with freight cars. 

Only relatively few mines are within access to the railway, 
and of these the larger number ship their "high-grade rock" 
by rail to Fernandina and thence to Europe by steamer, while a 
smaller number forward theirs to Tampa over the South Florida 
Railroad. The "pebble" phosphate is chiefly sent over the 
Florida Southern Railroad to Punta Gorda, but some of it goes 
over the same line to St. John's River via Sanford. The rock 
going to Fernandina pays a freight of about $2.20 per ton, that 
to Port Tampa about ll.lO, and the "pebble" to Punta Gorda 
and St. John's River costs about 75 cents. 

The natural diflUculties and impediments are at present rather 
discouraging, but the deposits themselves are of such immense 
extent, and the demand for them is likely to be so great and con- 
tinuous, that all obstacles to their exploitation must be of necessity 
eventually cleared away. "With the disappearance of the obstacles 
the material of all grades will come forward in large quantities, 
and as its chemical composition is very satisfactory, it Avill soon 
compete favorably for superphosj^hate-making with any other phos- 
phates now poi^ular with fertilizer manufacturers. 



84 The Phospliates of America. 

CHAPTER VI. 

SULPHURIC-ACID MANUFACTURE. 

Until Mr. Rodwell published his book, " The Birth of Chemis- 
try," we had always been led to believe that the discovery of sul- 
phuric acid was due to Basil Valentine, but we have now reason to 
suppose that it was known long before his time. 

It was reserved for one Gerard Dornaeus to describe with 
tolerable exactitude what it really was, and this he did in a pam- 
phlet published in the year 1570. 

English makers originally prepared it by burning copperas (pro- 
to-sulphate of iron) in brick ovens at a high temperature, and con- 
densing the vajjors which distilled off as an impure oil of vitriol, 
the commercial value of which was 1 1000 per ton. This process 
gave way to the use of sulphur and nitre, burnt together in enor- 
mous glass globes and concentrated by boiling in glass retorts, the 
product being called " oil of vitriol made by the bell." 

Passing on by successive stages, at which we need not stop, we 
arrive at the year 1746, and find the first leaden chamber erected in 
that year in Birmingham by Messrs. Roebuck and Garbett, the 
proportions of raw material emjjloyed being seven or eight pounds 
of sulphur to one pound of saltpetre. This mixture was placed 
upon lead jjlates standing in water within the chamber, and was 
ignited by means of a red-hot iron bar thrust in through a sliding 
})anel in the wall. 

Shortly after this time came the introduction of a separate apart- 
ment for burning the sulphur in a current of air, which was regula- 
ted by a slide moving in the iron furnace-door, the vapors being 
taken off through the roof into the adjoining chamber. 

Progressively and finally, the industry in Europe has now 
reached a point which may be almost considered perfect, there be- 
ing little room for improvement in works constructed to comply 
with all the requirements of modern jjrogress and modification. 

In order to make ourselves completely understood by those who 
know little or nothing of the subject, we have j^repared the an- 
nexed drawing of a modern sulphuric-acid works, and may state 
that when sulphur (S) is burnt in air it combines with the oxygen 



Tlie Pliospliates of America. 85 

of the latter, and sulphur dioxide is formed (SOg). If this gas be 
brought into contact with nitric-acid vapor (HNO3) and steam 
(H.,0), a combination takes place resulting in the formation of sul- 
phuric acid and nitric oxide, thus : 

3 SO, + 2 HNO3 + 3 H,0 = 3 H2SO4 + 2 NO. 

The nitric-acid vapor is produced by heating a mixture of nitrate 
of soda and oil of vitriol in an iron pan contained within the brim- 
stone or pyrites burners, and it is carried into the lead chambers 
simultaneously with the sulphur dioxide by means of a well-reo-u- 
lated air current. Reduced, as we have seen, to nitric oxide, it 
does not remain in this form, but immediately combines with the 
free oxygen introduced by the air-current and becomes nitric per- 
oxide (NO,). Assisted by the presence of steam, it thus constantly 
enacts the part of an oxygen-carrier to the sulphur dioxide, as 
may be gathered from the following figures: 



and — 



NO 4- O = NO., 
Nitric oxide + Oxygen = Nitric peroxide 

NOs + SO2 + H3O = H2SO4 + NO. 

Nitric peroxide -f Sulpliur dioxide + Steam. 



And so oxidation and reduction go on, and the circle of opera- 
tions is complete and continuous. 

The air of the atmosphere contains about seventy-nine per cent, 
of nitrogen and about 20.90 per cent, of oxygen inevery 100 vol- 
umes. This nitrogen plays no part at all in the changes Ave have de- 
scribed, and it hence follows that the required oxygen is accompa- 
nied by four times its volume of an inert gas which merely serves to 
fill up the chamber space and which calls for immediate and steady 
removal in order that the working elements may have fair play. At 
one time a simple chimney arranged at the end of the works, oppo- 
site to that at which the gases enter the chambers, was deemed 
sufficient, but it Avas soon discovered — to the cost of the manufact- 
urer — that the nitrogen, in itself escaping, carried off with it a 
large share of the nitric oxide. As the preservation of this latter 
gas is so important a factor in the economy of the industry, means 
had to be devised whereby it could be saved without inconvenience, 
and these means were duly provided and are now universally em- 
ployed, as we shall presently see. 

From the commercial standpoint of economical production, the 
chief questions that have to be seriously considered by fertilizer 



86 ' The Phosphates of America. 

manufacturers who contemplate the erection of an acid plant may 
be briefly summed up in the following manner: 

{a) Of pyrites and brimstone, which is the most economical and 
best source of sulphur? 

{b) If the preference be given to pyrites, what kind of furnace 
or burner is best adapted for effecting its complete combustion, 
including the " fines " ? 

(c) What are the best dimensions to accord to the leaden cham- 
bers in which are combined and condensed the gases induced by 
this combustion ? 

{cl) llow may the maximum results be produced from the ore at 
a minimum expenditure of nitrate of soda? 

(e) How to dispose of the residual cinders after desulphuriza- 
tion in order to lessen first cost. 

Of the first problem, the commercial aspect is the only part 
with which we need to deal, for it is at last understood and, if 
somewhat reluctantly, generally admitted, that from a jDOund of 
sulphur, whether it be taken in the form of pure brimstone or in 
combination with some mineral as a bisulphide, the same quantity 
of sulphurous-acid gas, generated by its combustion, will be ob- 
tained. 

From a purely scientific and theoretical point of view, and sj^eak- 
ing with that impartiality which we are called upon to observe, 
there can be very little doubt that if all things were equal 
there would be no room for hesitation in awarding immediate 
preference to the cleaner, purer and in every way simpler brim- 
stone ; and we must even go so far as to admit that inasmuch 
as very few, if any, of the pyrites ores hitherto discovered and 
worked are absolutely exempt from all traces of arsenic, there are 
certain branches of chemical manufacture in which it would be 
unadvisable, and others in which it would be in the highest degree 
dangerous, to use them. These, however, call for the emj^loyment 
of but a very insignificant quota of the gigantic total annually re- 
quired for the great chemical fertilizer industry, in which a trace of 
arsenic in the sulphuric acid employed is a matter of indifference. 

We may therefore leave the interests of small works where 
only fine or medicinal chemicals are produced, or where only coni- 
pai-atively small quantities of acid are required, out of the ques- 
tion. 

In comparing the relative cost of sulphuric acid derived from 
brimstone or pyrites, it must be borne in mind that in the latter we 



The Pliospliates of America. 87 

have to deal with two very distinct species of sulphides — those con- 
taining little or no coj^per and those bearing it in proportions varying 
from one and a half to five per cent. Ores of the second category will, 
as it is hardly necessary to say, always be preferred as a source of 
sulphur when other things are equal, and will, from that very fact, 
serve the general purpose of keeping the price of brimstone within 
reasonable limits. They are now almost exclusively used by the 
larger European chemical makers, who, being compelled from lack 
of domestic material to import their pyrites, have adopted the 
copper-bearing ores of Spain and Portugal, and by a very slight 
addition to their working plant, recover from the cinders the 
copper, silver and gold, and apply the proceeds of the ready and 
profitable sale of, these metals to the reduction of first cost. 

There are, fortunately, a few cases where our own intelligent 
manufacturers have kept pace Avith the times and obtained notably 
brilliant results by using pyrites and adopting modern processes, 
but these only serve to bring into more prominent notice the lack 
of enterprise and energetic initiative so clearly apparent generally 
throughout the country. 

As regards the purely iron ores, dependent for their value en- 
tirely upon their suljihur contents, the greatest, if not the only, 
bar to their more extensive application by our manufacturers, is 
probably the distance by which the centres of consumption are 
separated from the mines. The actual cost of raising and render- 
ing them suitable for the market would appear never to exceed 
an averageof ll.SOper ton, whereas the average cost of transjjort 
to all industrial centres is more than double that amount. 

If, after making all deductions for every possible source of 
loss, their actual sulphur contents be estimated at forty per cent., 
and if their cinders be treated as a valueless factor, it follows 
from this that while in the vicinity of the mine the maximum 
cost of pyrites-sulphur would be only |5.75 per ton, the price of 
railway and other transportation is so great that under normal 
market conditions it no longer offers great advantage over im- 
ported brimstone upon reaching the consumers' kilns. 

The question of freight being, therefore, such a momentous one, 
it is worth while to consider whether the railroad charge upon a 
finished fertilizer would be less onerous than that applied to the 
raw product, and if so, whether the erection of acid works on or 
near the pyrites mines would not be the surest means of turning an 
important source of sulphur to profitable account. 



S8 The Phosjjhates of America. 

It would, of course, be folly to expect all those who are now in 
the fertilizer trade to become owners of good pyrites mines, but 
this fact need in nowise prevent them from erecting works near 
such mines in order to profit by whatever advantages are to be 
derived from using the brimstone substitutes. Let us therefore 
examine what those advantages actually are. 

To commence with the furnace. The various forms introduced 
during the past few years for burning pyrites in England, France 
and Germany by Spence, Perret-Oliver, Juhel-Maletra, Gersten- 
hoefer and others have all been accurately described by popular 
writers, and it will suffice for present purposes to point out that the 
jirincipal conditions to be realized with either lumj^ or fines are : 

First. — To generate and convey to the lead chambers a maxi- 
mum of sulphurous acid and a minimum excess of atmospheric air. 

Second. — A combustion so perfect that less than one per cent, 
of sulphur shall remain in the cinder. 

Third. — To avoid any distillation of the sulphur or the forma- 
tion of ferrous sulphide (FeS). 

The necessary oxidation of the iron and the consequent pro- 
portionate increase of the superfluous nitrogen carried by the air 
in the mixture of gases, cause the volume of the latter, produced 
by burning pyrites, to be much greater than that proceeding from 
the combustion of pure brimstone, and it will be hence understood 
that the proper regulation of the air-supply — important under any 
conditions — is especially so when pyrites are emjDloyed. 

The gases derived from pyrites are known to move only at the 
rate of about one foot per minute, and it therefore follows that they 
remain sufiiciently long' in the chambers to become so intimately 
and thoroughly mixed that any attempt to give a specific direc- 
tion, either to the manner of their entry or their exit, becomes 
unnecessary. 

According to theory, only three molecules of oxygen need to 
be admitted into the furnaces, two for the formation of sulphurous 
acid and the third to transform the latter into HgSO^. For one 
kilogramme of ordinary brimstone this would require 1500 
grammes or 1055 litres of oxygen, or 5275 litres of atmospheric 
air ; the amount of air necessitated by burning the same quantity 
of sulphur in iron pyrites being, according to the same calculation, 
6595 litres. 

In practical industry, however, Mr. Schwarzenberg has shown 
that these figures do not suftice, and that it is necessary to intro- 



The Fhosphates of America. 8D 

duce 6199 litres of dry air in the case of brimstone and 8114.9 
litres in the case of pyrites, each being calculated on the basis of 
0° C. and a barometric pressure of 760 millimetres. These figures 
serve to demonstrate that the quantity of sulphur to be pi'ofitably 
burned per cubic foot of chamber space will fluctuate with the 
higher or lower situation of the works. 

The ingenious differential anemometer invented by Pedes and 
modified by Fletcher, and the beautiful and simple ajjj^aratus for 
analyzing the chamber gases designed by Orsat, have so facilitated 
the general process that an exactly proportioned current of air 
may now be measured out to meet the varying requirements of 
both situation and material emj^loyed. An example of this is 
afforded by Buchner's careful analyses, which show that the 
quantity of sulphurous-acid gas passed from the burners to the 
chambers varies from six to eight per cent., according to the nature 
of the pyrites, the construction of the furnace and the manage- 
ment of the air-supply. His greatest average by careful working 
was as follows: Sulphurous acid, 6.07 ; oxygen, 7.18; nitrogen, 
86.74. The sulphurous acid requiring only 3.03 volumes of oxygen 
for its transformation into HgSO^, it will be seen that after sub- 
tracting this quantity from the above total there still remained 
4.15 volumes to pass away with the nitrogen into the atmosphere, 
and the greatest watchfulness should be invariably observed by 
chamber managers to keej) as nearly as possible within these 
proportions. 

In some of the works where pyrites ores are burned, it is 
still customary not to convey the hot gases from the burners 
directly to the chambers, but to previously cool and at the same 
time cleanse them from the dust by which they are generally ac- 
companied by causing them to pass from the flues into an upright 
brick stack, carried from an indej^endent foundation to about 10 
feet above the level of the furnace arch. From this they enter a 
range of cast-iron pij^es 2 feet 6 inches in diameter and 27 feet 
long, in three lengths, cast in two halves, and each jDrovided with 
a man-hole to facilitate cleaning. 

These pipes are fitted into a tpnnel of lead 5 feet square and 
40 feet long, connected at its opposite extremity Avith the acid 
chamber by a seven-jiound sheet -lead pipe of about 1^- feet in 
diameter. 

Intelligent and thoughtful managers have now discarded this 
antiquated system in favor of a far simjiler and more rational 



90 The Plwsjjliates of America. 

arrangement of their plant, which we have endeavored to broadly 
outline in our illustration on opposite jjage, and at which a critical 
glance will be interesting. 

Acid Chambers. — The subject .of chamber construction is well 
worn, if not exhausted ; their form and size have long been bones 
of contention over which certain wiseacres, with plenty of time for 
useless discussion, have growled ad nauseam. After a very varied 
experience and careful inspection of many working systems, we 
have concluded that the required object — i.e., the proper conden- 
sation of the gases — can take jjlace equally well in one large cham- 
ber as in a series of two or three, and that a choice of either is 
essentially a matter of personal taste and personal opinion. A 
very excellent arrangement will be found to consist in 'a set of 
two, adopting as favorable dimensions 125 feet long by 24 feet 
wide and 18 feet high. The connections are made by a fifteen to 
eighteen inch diameter lead pipe hung from the roof, with a good 
fall at its end to prevent the accumulation of any condensed acid. 

As to the necessary thickness of lead, there is almost as much 
diversity of opinion as upon tlie dimensions of the chambers ; but 
remembering that a good chamber, properly started and soundly 
built, should last from ten to twelve years, a happy medium may 
be attained in this direction by adopting seven-2iound lead for the 
first and six-pound for the second. 

The amount of chamber room should in no case be less than 
20 cubic feet for every pound of sulphur consumed. 

The pressure of steam should be as evenly distributed as possi- 
ble, and the faulty system sometimes adopted of introducing it 
from a single jet, which can only play upon one jDortion of the 
gases, must be carefully avoided. Since of every 100 tons of 
chamber acid produced one-half consists only of water originally 
injected in the form of steam, it has been urged by Dr. Sprengel 
that this warm steam unnecessarily expands the bulk of the gases, 
instead of lowering their temperature, and causing them to shrink 
in volume. 

To obviate this inconvenience he has therefore suggested the 
use of a spray of cold water, to be forced into the chamber by a 
pump of his own invention ; but the device, while ingenious, does 
not work well and has not been generally adopted. 

The jjreferred method is to inject steam into the entrance end 
of the chamber and into its side rather more than half the way 
alone:. 



92 The Pliospliates of America, 

The surest means of accurately knowing what is going on in 
the chambers is afforded by the provision and maintenance in 
proper condition of "drips" and "caps." This is a well-estab- 
lished fact among old and experienced acid-makers universally. 

The best apparatus for taking drips consists of a small lead 
dish placed within the chamber upon a 15-inch diameter earthen- 
ware pipe, about 3 feet high, and at about \\ feet from the side. 
A small half-inch lead pipe, shaped like an S, is fixed into the bot- 
tom of the dish and pierces the chamber side, setting with its 
mouth over a leaden basin standing upon a leaden ledge outside. 
The liquid acid passes as it is formed through the siphon, drips 
into the basin and, overflowing upon the ledge, is carried back 
again into the chamber by a small j^ipe. 

Two drips should be arranged in each chamber of the set, 
at equal distances from each other, and the contents of the basins 
will constantly represent the nature of the acid and indicate 
its strength, nitrosity, etc., at any moment. Certain openings 
should be left in each chamber ; a man -hole, and a small hole near 
the end for sampling. A couple of windows will also be useful, 
one fixed in the darkest side, about five feet from the ground, and 
the other in a direct line with it upon the top. 

The light shining through these windows reveals to an experi- 
enced eye the exact condition of the gases. 

The following indications are furnished by the caps of the 
chambers as to what is going on within, and are worthy of note : 

When one of those covering the first chamber is slightiy lifted 
the gases should rush out with great force. This should become 
less noticeable or almost disappear in the second chamber. 

If the inside of the cap be quite dry and covered with small 
crystals, which, upon being moistened, turn green, the evidence is 
certain of an insufficiency of steam. 

If, on the contrary, it be dripping wet, it is equally certain that 
the steam is in excess, and in either case the remedy is obvious 
and at hand. 

The regulation of the supply of nitre, after that of the draught, 
is an extremely important point, a mismanagement inevitably en- 
tailing one of two evils : 

First. — If the quantity supplied be too large it ruins the lead 
and excludes all possibility of profitable working. 

Second. — If the quantity be too small there is an inevitable 
escape of sulphurous acid. 



The riiospliates of America. 93 

Volumes might still be devoted to a discussion of the reactions 
which go on between the gases in the chambers, and, from a truly 
scientific point of view, few questions are of a more absorbingly 
interesting nature. Our present purpose, however, of pointing out 
how to avoid accidents or trouble in what is really, Avhen properly 
imderstood, a very simjjle and natural process, will best be served 
by briefly summarizing a few leading facts. 

The nitric acid used in the process plays no other part, as we 
have previously explained, than that of carrying from the oxygen 
of the air to the sulphurous acid, the necessary atom of the former 
by which, with water, its transformation into sulphuric acid is 
effected, and consequently Avhatever be the manner of its entry, it 
is eventually discharged from the chambeivs in its original form. 
This being allowed, it becomes immaterial whether ic is intro- 
duced directly and separately into the chambers, as is customary 
in many large European works, by means which have frequently 
been described, or whether it is sent in by the older, more econom- 
ical, and certainly simpler system of "jjotting." 

If the gases reach the chambers with a due excess of oxygen 
and there meet with a sufficiency of steam, none of the nitrogenous 
compounds will disap])ear. 

Should steam, however, be absent, there must naturally be 
formed a nitro-sulphuric compound, which will prevent any reac- 
tion between the sulphurous acid and the oxygen by using up the 
nitrogen for its own condensation. 

If the entering gases are deficient in oxygen, no sulphuric acid 
<!an be formed, owing to the fact that the nitrogen compounds are 
reduced in rapid succession to bioxide and protoxide. If, on the 
■other hand, they contain too little sulphurous acid, the nitrogen 
compounds are transformed into nitric acid by the steam, and in 
this state exercise a violent and destructive action on the lead. 

With the display of only ordinary care and intelligence, how- 
ever, there should be little chance for any of these mishaps, and a 
simple glance at regular intervals through the side windows or a 
slight removal of the caps will always insure against them. 

The gases in the first working chamber must invariably be 
white, while those issuing from the last cap of the second chamber 
must be of a very dee]) red and emit strong nitrous fumes. 

AVe know from experience that the gases allowed to pass away 
from well-managed factories do not contain more than a maximum 
of five per cent, of oxygen, and we also know that when the red 



94 



The PJiosphates of Amei'ica. 



color of the last chamber lessens or fades away, it is because of the 
presence of sulphurous acid, which, if it were allowed to pass into 
the absorbing tower, would not only denitrate the nitrous acid, 
but would cause the dissipation of all the recoverable nitrogen 
comj^ounds. 

A sufficient attention to details which, if small in themselves, 
are of the highest importance to the re- 
sults, will bring a set of chambers in a very 
short time to a state of perfect working 
order, but it is positively essential that the 
operations be presided over by a competent 
superintendent, who, in addition to a fre- 
quent examination of the furnace cinders 
as a check upon the burning of the ores, 
should also determine by a rough analysis 
of the gases every day at their entry into, 
as well as at their exit from, the chambers, 
the approximate quantity of sulphurous acid, 
contained in the one case and the amount 
of oxygen in the other. 



L 



IS^H.^- 



P^-^'-S-] 



SECTIONAL VIEW OF 
GAY LUSSAC OR ABSORB- 
ING TOWER. 



GAY- LUSSAC TOWERS. 

The solubility of nitrous acid in oil of 
vitriol containing less than four molecules 
of water was first taken advantage of by 
the distinguished French chemist. Gay Lus- 
sac, Avho invented the columns which bear 
his name, and with which even those wha 
still disdain their use are not unfamiliar. 
The tower shown in the figure is a very prac- 
tical form, and it must be built of eight- 
pound sheet-lead and should be from 40 ta 
50 feet in height, with an interior diameter 
of from 5 to 6 feet, or such other dimensions- 
as are necessary to insure a cubical ca- 
jjacity of about two per cent, of the entire- 
chamber space. 

Either a brick or a wooden framework 
may serve as a support, but the foundation 
must be solid and the tower itself kept 
plumb and completely accessible to the air. 



Tlie Pliosphates of America. 95 

The packing must be carefully attended to, the proper plan 
being to commence with a few of the best fire-bricks at the bottom, 
following this with a couple of feet of large, chemically clean, 
pure flints, and finishing up with large lumps of hard-burnt oven (not 
gas) coke, the latter being not only an admirable absorbent, but 
also extremely cheap and sufficiently light to obviate any danger 
from lateral pressure. Into the exit-pipe are fitted very small 
glass windows, through which it will be satisfactory occasionally 
to note that the escaping gases yield no red fumes by contact with 
the air. A few feet above the tower is placed a cistern, which, by 
means of a properly regulated tap, supplies the cold, absorbing 
sulphuric acid of a strength equal to 62° B., and the great jjoint 
to be attained is the maintenance of such a perfect and equal dis- 
tribution in the form of a drizzling rain that not a particle of 
the ascending gases may escape its contact. A convenient sam- 
pling arrangement is connected with the tank at the bottom, and 
the nitrous vitriol is frequently tested by adding to a small sample 
a quantity of very cold water, when, if the absorption has been 
complete, large volumes of red fumes will be thrown off. The 
liquid is pumped from the tank to the Glover tower by means of 
the " Qg,^,''^ as hereafter described. 

THE GLOVER TOWER. 

This remarkably ingenious and valuable addition to the sulphu- 
ric-acid plant is named after its disinterested inventor, Mr. John 
Glover, an English chemist, and is to be shortly but accurately de- 
scribed as — 

First. — A most perfect, rapid, and economical concentrator of 
chamber acid. 

Second. — An absolute denitrator of the nitrous vitriol. 

Third. — An adjunct shie qua non to the Gay Lussac tower. 

That it should still be far from universally used or even known 
in this country is an extraordinary and regrettable fact, which 
affords sufficient reason for here devoting a certain space to an ex- 
position of its value. 

The erection of a Glover tower, while not a difficult matter, 
nevertheless requires very careful study, sound judgment and 
considerable knowledge of the functions it is expected to fulfil. 

Occupying an intermediate position between the pyrites f urnacea 
and the chambers, it receives the whole of the sulphurous and ni- 
trous gases arising from the combustion. AVith a height of 30 feet 



96 



The Pliospliates of America. 



for lump pyrites and about 40 feet for " smalls," and an external 
diameter of 10 feet square, its foundation must be solid and its outer 
framework offer no impediment to a free circulation of the air. 
A very good form is shown in the accompanying illustration, and 




SECTIONAL VIEWS OF THE " GLOVEK " OR DENITRATING TOWER. 



its construction is extremely simple. It has a framework of iron, 
lined throughout with twelve-pound sheet-lead without cross-joints. 
This is in its turn lined with small glass cubes and pounded glass- 
filling, to a thickness varying from a foot to a foot and a half. The 



The Phosphates of Amei'ica. 97 

dish destined to receive the hot concentrated acid must be of twenty- 
five pound lead and have a well-formed lij), a loose sheet of lead 
being placed over its bottom to prevent injury from the linings. 
The cast-iron gas-pipe leading from the furnace projects a little 
above the dish some 8 or 9 inches into the tower, and directly be- 
neath an arch built either of pure quartz or glass bricks, levelled up 
with small lumps of pure silica or the broken-up ends of old bottles. 
Upon this arch comes the packing, and here we enter into the 
dangerous domain of discussion and disagreement, where, while 
all managers agree in admitting the utility of the tower, all have 
pet theories as to the manner in which it is to be lined and packed 
in order to wear well and be turned to profitable account. 

In a tower which has now been continually at work for nearly 
four years, and with which M'e are well acquainted, there are first 
placed upon the arch about 8 feet of open packing, Avith first-class 
fire-bricks, into the interstices of which is loosely distributed a 
sufficient quantity of minute siliceous pebbles. 

Next comes about ^ feet of chemically clean and pure flints of 
moderate size, and finally, up to within about five feet of the cover 
(which, together with the distributing apparatus, is the same as 
that described in the Gay-Lussac tOAver) come successive layers 
of the best hand-picked hard-burned oven-coke. 

Immediately below the cover is an exit-pipe 3 feet in diameter, 
leading to the chamber with a considerable fall, while upon the 
top of the tower are two tanks jdaced side by side and suitably 
covered, but accessible to the cooling influence of the air. Into 
one of these tanks is pumped the whole of the acid from the Gay- 
Lussac tower, as Ave previously remarked, and into the other all or 
any part of the 50° B. acid from the lead chambers. 

Pipes lead from each tank to a reaction Avheel under the cover of 
the toAver, whence, with the same cautious observance of minute 
and equal distribution already insisted upon in the case of the 
Gay-Lussac toAj'er, the two liquids, made to meet and combine in 
equal proportions, trickle downwards. 

We have seen that the acids from the chambers and the bottom 
tanks must be continually hoisted to the cistern on the summit of 
the towers, and it has been demonstrated that compressed air will 
carry them to any height, while exercising no decomposing action 
on the liquids. 

The description of siphon or " egg " (as it is commonly called) 



98 



Tlie Pliospliates of America. 



best adapted to the purpose, is shown in the illustration, and is 
made of thick cast-iron, shaped something like an English soda- 
water bottle. 

It is placed in position upon a somewhat lower level than the 
bottom tanks, requires no lead lining, and is closed at one end by 
a man -hole door of wroiight-iron. On its top side are provided 
three flanged openings fitted with a corresponding number of pipes. 




ACID-SIPHON, OR "EGG." 



— one for the blower, one for the acid charger, and the third, which 
extends right through to a hollowed-out space in the under side, for 
delivery. Valves and cushions are fitted to the pij^es leading from 
the tanks to the main jiassage into the egg, such main being also 
provided with a perfect-fitting strong screw-valve and a long rod. 
Near the bottom is a guide, the upper part of which traverses a 
very strong wooden frame in which is fixed the screw-worm, and 
having upon its top a small hand-wheel. When ready to charge, this 
valve is turned up and the cistern plug removed. When the egg. 



Tlte PTiospliates of America. gg 

is full the cistern plug is reseated, and the screw-valve over the ego- 
lirmly fixed in its place. 

The engine chosen for working the " egg " should have both a 
steam and air cylinder, worked with a direct stroke, and should be 
constructed to force acid through the delivery-pipe to the required 
height with ease and freedom. 

The whole pumping-gear must be kept scrupulously clean and 
in good repair, and it is a wise measure of precaution to provide 
two " eggs " for each set of towers, so as to avoid, in case of a break- 
down, any stoppage of the process. 

As the absorbing powers of concentrated sulphuric acid are 
known to become less, proportionately, with the increase in its tem- 
perature, the absolute necessity for effectually cooling that which 
runs from the Glover before passing it on to the Gay-Lussac tower 
need hardly be insisted upon. 

A sufficiently long leaden worm pipe immersed in water, kept 
constantly cold, will answer all purposes. 

The action which takes place in the denitrating column is ex- 
tremely complicated. 

Briefly stated, it may be said that the gases from the furnaces 
and the nitre-pots pass into and up the column at a temperature of 
from 90.0° to 1000° F., being met and traversed in their course 
by the fine down -pouring rain of acid proceeding from the two 
cisterns placed over its summit. 

There thus simultaneously ensues a thorough denitration and 
concentration ; the nitrous compounds given off by the acid from 
the Gay-Lussac tower and the steam resulting from the evaporation 
of the weak acid are both carried by the thoroughly cooled furnace 
gases into the chamber, the acid flowing into the bottom cistern 
being concentrated by the loss of its water to from 62° to 63° B. 

The proper position naturally indicated for a Glover tower, 
therefore, is, as we have shown in our plan, as close a prox- 
imity to the burners as may be compatible with perfect safety from 
fire, since the hotter the gases, the greater will be the evaporation 
and the higher the degree of concentration of the acid flowing 
through it. 

Some ten years ago Mr. Scheurer-Kestner pointed out that 
during the combustion of pyrites, there is formed in the furnace a 
large quantity of sulphuric anhydride which, being carried into the 
denitrator with the other gases, is presumably responsible, by its. 



100 The Phosphales of America. 

corrosive action, for the rapid decomposition of the fire-bricks 
generally used for the base of the interior lining. Having con- 
tinued his experiment up to recent times, the same distinguished 
author has published further and still more elaborate analyses, 
entirely confirmatory of his first discover}^ and, as incontro- 
vertible evidence, j^roves that the addition to a sulphuric-acid 
plant of a Glover tower, invariably results in an atigmentatloji 
of 2y^'oduction amounting, according to its dhyiensions and the 
excellence of its coyistriiction, to from ten to tiaenty per cent., toith 
'no increase in the material employed. 

His operations were conducted in his own works, at Thann, 
with shelf-burners, consuming 5^ tons of pyrites — " fines " aver- 
aging forty-eight per cent, sulphur — daily. The whole of the 
acid 2>i"oduced in the chambers was passed through the Glover 
tower, where an evaporation of no less than 3|^ tons of water was 
noted in every twenty-four hours. Starting with an accurate 
knowledge of the quantities contained in the chamber, tanks and 
various apparatus, the total daily production was accurately re- 
corded during a period of sixteen days, at the end of which mat- 
ters were so arranged as to be exactly in the same position as they 
were at the commencement of the experiment. 

Of the 96 tons of 66° B. acid obtained, 15.152 tons, or 15.70 
per cent., must have been formed in the tower. A second experi- 
ment, by what may be termed an indirect method, confirmed this 
result. 

In this case the exact quantity of sulphuric acid condensed in 
the leaden chambers was accurately determined, with an absolute 
previous knowledge of what should be theoretically yielded from 
the amount of j^yrites burned. The difl^erence between this quan- 
tity, and that actually obtained, represented the excess formed or 
condensed in the Glover tower. Thus: 

Terns. 

Sulphuric acid of 66° B. produced 48.300 

Sulphuric acid of 66° B. condensed in the chamber 40.378 



Difference representing the acid formed in the Glover tower. 7.923 
Or 16.30 percent 

To these figures must be added the sulphuric acid which, pass- 
ing with the gases through the tower in a state of vapor, was con- 
densed in the connection-pipe. This being daily and exactly 



The Phosphates of America. 101 

measured during the course of each experiment, Avas foiind to 
represent from two, to two and a half per cent, of the whole prod- 
uct, the entire gain being thus brought uj) to the extraordinary 
total of about eighteen per cent. Mr. Scheurer-Kestner is proba- 
bly one of the best manufacturing chemists in the world, and as a 
shrewd man of business, he supplements his theory by a very solid 
and practical final piece of evidence. 

Using his own words, he says that before the Glover tower was 
erected in his works at Thann, his sets of chambers produced in 
each twenty-four hours six tons of oil of vitriol on the basis of 66° 
Beaume. Ever since the toM^er has been adopted and brought to 
proper working order, the production has been increased to 7.280 
tons. The difference, 7.280 — 6.000 = 1.280, in actual practical 
working, therefore, rejjresents seventeen and a half per cent, of his 
total output. 

Mr. Scheurer-Kestner attributes the formation of this sulphuric 
acid, outside the leaden chamber, to a double origin, about one-half 
being due to the anhydride produced during the combustion and 
dissolved by the descending current of liquid in the tower, and the 
other half being spontaneously formed by the action of the nitrous 
compounds on the ascending sulphurous acid. 

COSTS OF PRODUCTION. 

From what has preceded it is perfectly clear that the actual 
cost of sulphuric acid entirely depends ujion three chief conditions: 

First. — The price of sulphur. 

Second. — The resources, adaptability and excellence of the 
working plant. 

Third. — The chemical, mechanical and, generally, industrial 
skill of the working management. 

It would, therefore, be obviously unfair to make any allowance 
for short-comings which have no right to exist, and it will be wise, 
in going into figures, to assume perfection in every detail. 

A correct basis for calculation is furnished by what is com- 
monly known as chamber acid — that is to say, the product daily 
formed in the chambers and subjected to no other concentration 
than that by the Glover tower. With pi'oper care it may be made 
to average a gravity of say 52° Beaume, and for the decomposi- 
tion of average natural phosphates no greater strength than this is 
required. 



103 The Phosphates of America. 

If the entire product from the chambers were put through 
the Glover tower, the gravity could be run up to 60° or even 62° 
B, and the concentrated liquid could be easily reduced to any 
required strength by the addition of water, as shown by a table 
in a subsequent chapter. 

The composition of pure HjSOi is made up of 81.63 parts of 
sulj)huric anhydride and 18.37 parts of water. 

For every 100 jiounds by weight it contains: 

Hydrogen 2 . 041 pounds 

Sulphur 32.653 " 

Oxygen 66.306 " 

Total 100 

Hence the quantity of acid produced by 100 jjounds of suli:)hur 
should be: 

Sulphur 100.00 pounds 

Hydrogen 6.20 " 

Oxygen 199.80 " 

Total HoSO^ equals 306 

In other words, one pound of sulphur, when properly burned, 
theoretically yields 3.06 pounds of the monohydrate, with a 
specific gravity of 1.842 at 15° C. and 66° according to 
Beaume's hydrometer. In practice, a regular average yield of 
about 2.95 pounds of 66° Beaume, or even 4.50 pounds of 52° 
Beaume, is considered an excellent result, and while the state- 
ments of manufacturers who claim to do better than this must 
be received with caution, it may nevertheless be laid down as an 
axiom \\i2X from every pound of sulphur really hurned, vihether 
it he in the form of brimstone or of pyrites, the same amount of 
sulphurous- acid gas, and consequently of sulphuric acid, will, 
render all equal conditions, he produced. 

A reference to the annexed analytical table will show the pro- 
portion of sulphur contained in the pyrites now mined and used in 
this country. 



The Phosphates of America. 



103 



^. a a> (T, ^' a ■& ^ 




5 


^ 

3 


o ;t) Q 

B P » 


^ S p 


?3 o 

= p 


§ 




Igian " 

g.lish 

sh 


-i 
3 
-J 


a Domingo, Portv 
edish mines, ave 
rwegian " ' 


2 t^ 

o - 

y 

CO 


3^ 


3 

:^ 

a 
3 


zabeth mine, Ver 
nt Lawrence Cou 
ster County, New 
minius mine, Vir 
ston County, Nor 
ulding County, G 
clvtown, Tennesse 


35" 

3 
p" 

jD 

CO 
P 

o 


P 
- P 

" 3 

b' 

o 








Crq p. 




5" 




^o?^-^S. 


3 


p 

rn 


» p 

- 3 








(D 










: '19 

• P % 

• ■ o 


s-^r^ 


3 


Ct> 


^3 

03 




























.^^ 




73 


p; 






























5" 




^ 






CD 






























p 




K1 

o 






p 

to H-l 




h*^ CO ht>- 


^ 


«^ )^ CO h4^ 


^ 


«^ 


;^ 


CO *>. *>. 


^ CO CO 


CO 


)«^ 


CO rf^ :* 




-3 *^ JO 


'Ji 


35 C5 OD CO 


» 


» 


o 


or FJ. rfi. 


=5 CO 00 


» 


CO 


OT 05 o 




t^ OS 00 


35 


35 h-1. O O 


» 


i^ 


^^ 


O O O 


O h-t o 


o 


to 


b bg 


SULPHUR. 


H-' rfi^ o 


=> 


O C^ Oi -J 


Z3 


o 




o o o 


o to o 


o 


^ 


o o S- 




rf:^ CO CO 


W 




i^ 


*^ 


JJ 


4^ CO CO *^ CO CO 


~Jl 


rf^ 


CO rf^ r^ 




!->. W C5 


x> 


J5 4i. iO hf^ 


.o 


=> 


J( 


0-.JC5rfi.rfi.rfa. 


o 


wt 


O O o 




-3 to -7 


51 


<J iO OD M 


Jl 


o J 


o 


O O O or 1-i O 


rs 


CO 


o» o 2 




00 o o 


LO 


o o o 00 


Jl 


.o 


o 


050 


o 


o 


o o S- 
















r^ 


in- 






*^ 




























h-i o . 




2 to h-' CO 


» 


o 


w 


?" *^ P 

<^ o 2 


-i p CO 


:o 


1—1. 


CT CO c 




to OD • 




3 i-i Oi t» 




y 


o 


=> 2 <=> 


iT 


rfi^ 


b "-J 2 


COPPER. 


oo o • 




^ O O Oi 


=> 


o 


o 


cO C> fP 


o 5 o 


o 


-* 


o C7I S- 














-f. 










_ r+- i-S 




























to o o 


=> 


- P O P 


=> 


o 




O r. ^ 






M 


O P O 




H-i CO lO 


J5 


•~ O B CO 


4^ 




t) 


P " ' 


• - •" 


•~ 


o 


P o 2 




Hi h-^ o 


'JJ 


5 (P 00 
en 


-3 


iO 


/3 


(B 






05 


» s r 
























•T3 




lO H-* O 


35 


H-i . 


o 


o 












00 h^ r. 




o CO hfi- 


=1 


lo ■ 


M 


o 












b b 2 




O K> o 


=> 


o • • 


ill 


to 




. 








o o S- 
























. B :* 




. o o < 


D 


< 


D 


—A 
















• rf^ «> - 


-7 ■ 


« 


o 


;;t 












p 2 


LEAD. 


• O iO ^ 


t^ • 


• • • c 


^ 


.o 




. 


* ■ 






• CD S- 








• a 




% 


2 
3* 










^ 








• o - 

• p " 


:; 


" 5 












GOLD. 


" * • * 




• cc 






p' 




* • 




















•4 


< 














• o - 


;- 





a' 


P S • . • 

r r o ^- : : : 






• o 

• re 


SILVER. 


• ■ • • 








i 


r 


cc c' • 






s 












1 


p 


CD 






r* 
























►tJ 




. . rf^ . 


c 


o ts c;i o c 


z> < 


o . 




00 . . . 








• o 


CARBO- 


• • -3 • 


i 


•O OI O C5 C 


X> 5 


^ • 




o • • • 










NATE LIME 


• • ai ' 


< 


O O O 00 - 


-J c 


^ 




o • • • 


* * ' 






r+- 
























itJ 




. . o . 




< 


D . 








. 






• C5 


SULPHATE 


• • a> • 




c 


Jl • 














. 3 


LIME. 


• • Ol 




c 


=> • 








. 




























ns 




H-i . 




. . o . 


















CARBO- 


• • o • 




to • 
















ct 


NATE 


• • CT - 




• • CI • 










• 






r^ 


MAGNESIA. 


CO h-i 




-I l-J. 






^ 


l-J. HJ. to 


to to l-i 




to ro 




*>■ o to < 


ja ( 


JO CO to to i 





XI 5 


o 


to OO O -5 C5 OT CO 


CO 


»-' 05 o 




-3 O hf*. ► 


-J 


J? C5 Or or i 


o 


f^ ► 


f^ 


O O O K^ 05 O OJ 


en 


oi to 2 


SILICA. 






D CJI 05 O C 


^ « 


35 I 


JS 


O O O O CO o o 


CO 


o c;i S- 





104 The Phospludes of America. 

From these figures it will appear that the average may be 
safely taken at forty-six per cent, of sulphur, and of this amount, a 
A'aried experience has demonstrated that at least six per cent, are 
generally unavailable and should therefore be regarded as loss. 

The prices of raw material given in the following table are in- 
tended to cover all costs of delivery to works in readily accessible 
shipping ports, and are based, not upon the high values now pre- 
vailing for brimstone and communicated to it by speculation, but 
upon the average prices which have prevailed during the past five 
years. 

In the pyrites estimate, considerable additions have been made 
to the items of nitre and labor, and it has been considered wise in 
both cases to write off the whole value represented by the works 
in ten years, experience of this system in practice having proved 
highly satisfactory. 

Despite sundry drawbacks the balance of advantage is un- 
equivocally shown to be on the side of the pyi*ites, even when 
utilized at centres so far distant from the sources of production as 
to entail a very heavy freight. 

TABLE OF COMPARISON SHOWING THE ACTUAL COST OF PRODUCING ONE 
TON OF 53° BEAUME SULPHURIC ACID FROM BRIMSTONE AND PYRITES 
IN ACCESSIBLE SHIPPING PORTS. 

Brimstone (short tons). 

1 ton of brimstone (98 per cent. S.) thirds, at |21 $21.00 

50 lbs. of nitrate of soda, at 2| cents per lb 1 .25 

500 lbs. coals, at, say, $4 per ton 1 . 00 

Workmen's wages 2 . 25 

Superintendence and management , 2.00 

Genei'al jobbing repairs 50 

Interest on capital of $75,000 at 10 fo per j'ear, the works be- 
ing calculated to produce 20 tons daily and to last for 

ten years 4 . 60 

Total $32 . 60 

Product equals 4)^ tons of 52° B. Cost per ton $7.65 

Pyrites (short tons). 

2^ tons of iron pyrites at 46 per cent, sulphur, at 12 cents 

per unit and per ton $13 . 80 

60 lbs. nitrate of soda, at 2)t cents per lb 1 .50 

500 lbs. of coals, at, say, $4 per ton 1 .00 

Workmen's wages , 3 . 00 



The Phosphates of America. 105 

Superintendence and management 2.00 

General jobbing- repairs 60 

Interest on capital, same terms as above 4. 60 

Total 126.50 

Product equals 4| tons of 50° B. Cost per ton $5 . 90 

We have already hinted at the feasibility of manufacturing- 
the acid in the vicinity of the pyrites mines, but have not for- 
gotten to add that its practicability must be established b)^ clearly 
demonstrating that the cost of carrying phosphates or 66° B. acid 
is less than the freights now paid upon the pyrites ore. 

The problem deserves to be inquired into by capitalists, since 
its favorable solution would still more reduce costs, as follows : 

COST OF ACID PRODUCTION AT THE MINES. 

2i tons of iron- pyrites, containing 46 per cent, sulphur, at 

a maximum of 5 cents per unit delivered at the works . $5 . 75 
Other charges, same as given in preceding table 12 . 70 

Total cost of U tons 50° B. acid $18.45 

Cost per ton |4.10 

To put it plainly, the manufacturer at the mines Avould be 
working upon sulphur which, on an exactly equivalent chemical 
basis of calculation, would cost him $15.25 less per ton than the 
price paid for brimstone by his competitors. 



106 The Phosphates of America. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE MANUFACTURE OF SUPERPHOSPHATE, PHOSPHORIC ACID, 
AND " HIGH-GRADE SUPERS." 

The process of superphosphate manufacture from mineral 
phosphates is not very generally understood, and while neither 
very complicated nor difficult, requires a certain amount of 
chemical knowledge and experience which the majority of those 
concerned in it do not possess. Hence it follows that no article 
in the market is more variable, both in its physical condition and 
chemical composition. 

Nor can this remain a source of surprise when we remember 
that each manufacturer adopts some peculiar system of his own, 
and that no two fertilizer factories bear any resemblance to each 
other. 

We have seen that raw phosphates, whether of animal or 
mineral origin, are made up of three molecules or parts of lime 
(CaO) combined with one molecule or part of phosphoric anhy- 
dride (Pg^s)* '^^® words acid phosphate, superphosphate, water- 
soluble phosphate, are all used to describe a product obtained by 
treating these raw phosphatic materials with a sufficient propor- 
tion of sulphuric acid to transform two out of their three mole- 
cules of lime into suli^hate of lime or gypsum (CaSO^). 

To the lay reader, the chemistry of the mixture will be more 
readily understood if we briefly explain, that when a j)iece of pure 
phosphorus is burnt in contact with dry air it gives off vapors, 
every two atoms of which combine with five atoms of atmospheric 
oxygen to form a snow-white powder. This powder is the phos- 
phoric anhydride above alluded to, and it has a molecular weight 
of 142. Its chief characteristic is its attraction for water, and if 
left temporarily exposed to the air it rapidly deliquesces. 

In this moist state it is found to have combined with water in 
the molecular ratio of 1:3, and its composition has become 

Phosphoric anhydride (P3O5) 1 mol. = 142 by weight. 

Water (H3O) 3 mols. = 54 " 

Or, Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) 2 mols. = 196 " 

In other words, every 100 parts of it contain 



The Phosphates of America. 



101 



Phosphoric anhydride (P2O5) 72.45 

Water (H^O) 37^55 



100 

And It may be regarded as typical of the tribasic combination 
in which the anhydride is always encountered in nature. 

It has the faculty of exchanging one, two, or all three of its 
water-molecules, for molecules of various bases, and thus we are 
quite familiar with it as 

CaO(H30)3P30g, or acid phosphate of lime, in which it has 
taken one molecule of lime in place of one molecule of water ; 

(CaO)3H30 PgOg, or neutral p>hosphate of lime, in which it 
has taken two molecules of lime in place of two molecules of 
water ; and 

(CaO)3P205, or tribasic ph.osp)hate of lime, in which all the 
water-molecules have been displaced by lime. 

The first of these compounds is soluble in water. 

The second insoluble in water but soluble in neutral citrate of 
ammonia. 

The third is only soluble in strong acids. 

When quite pure, every 100 parts of each of them is made 
up of — 



Phosphoric anhydride (P2O5) 

Lime (CaO) 

Water (HoO) 



Acid Phos- 
phate of 
Lime. 



60.68 
23.93 
15.39 



100 



Neutral 
Phos- 
phate of 
Lime. 

52.20 

41 .18 

6.62 



100 



Tribasic 

Phos- 
phate of 
Lime. 



45.81 
54.19 



100 



The tricalcic or last of these compounds is the phosphate of 
lime which occurs in the deposits we have be^n engaged in con- 
sidering, and the problem of making it soluble in water or in 
neutral citrate of ammonia has been worked out by chemists on 
the following basis : 

Sulphuric acid is known to be more energetic in its action at 
ordinary temperatures than any other acid used in industry. It 
therefore has the power of displacing all other acids from their 
salts and of taking their bases to itself to form sulphates. 

The acids chiefly present in natural phosphates are phosphoric, 
carbonic, fluoric and silicic, and these, when brought into contact 



108 Tlie Phosphates of America. 

with diluted sulphuric acid, are all dislodged. The bases become 
sulphates. The phosjihoric anhydride combines with water and 
remains in the mass as free phosphoric acid, while the carbonic, 
fluoric, and part of the silicic acids, go off as vapor, the two latter 
generally combined in the very poisonous form of silicon tetra- 
fluoride. In the manufacture of fertilizers, however, as at present 
carried out, the object is not to produce free phosphoric acid, but 
'■'■ acid phosphate^'' since, as we have already seen, this latter salt is 
quite soluble in water, and therefore can fulfil all the conditions 
that are deemed by some authorities to be essential in a plant food. 
It hence follows that the substitution of the bases must not be 
complete, but must be only carried to a sufficient point to displace 
all foreign acids, and to saturate two out of the three molecules of 
the lime combined with j^hosphoric anhydride. 

Lest this proposition should appear too complicated, we may 
endeavor to make it more clear by an example, in which we shall 
assume that w^e are called upon to deal with a Florida phosphate, 
the composition of which has been determined by chemical analy- 
sis to be as folloM's : 

Moisture and organic matter 3.90 

Tribasic phosphate of hme 79.40 (equal to 36.43 P3O5) 

Carbonate of lime 5.48 

Phosphates of iron and alumina. . . 3.00 (equal to about 1.50 PgOg) 

Carbonate of magnesia , . . . 0.72 

Sulphate and fluoride of lime 3.20 

Sandy matters, silicates, etc 4.30 

100 

The sulphuric acid known as '■'■ chamber acid'''' when measured 
with Beaume's hydrometer at a temperature of 60° F., contains the 
following percentages of sulphuric anhydride (SO3) and pure mono- 
hydrate (H2SO,) : 

Degrees Beaume Percentage of Percentage of 

at 60° F. SO^ {Anhydride) H^SO^ (Monohydrate). 

48 48.70 59.63 

49 49.80 61.00 

50 51.00 62.47 

51 52.20 63.94 

52 53.50 65.53 

53 54.90 67.30 

54 56.00 68.60 

55 57.10 69.94 



The Phosphates of America. 109 

With the analysis and this table before ns, we may proceed to 
find out in what proportions the powder and the liquid must be 
brought together to transform the insoluble phosphates into a 
water or citrate soluble form, and we acquire this knowledge by 
resorting to an equation, which we will endeavor, as an example, 
to produce in its simplest expression : 

Molecular Weights. 



310 196 

CasPgOg + 2H2SO4 = 2CaS04 + CaH.PgOg 

1 molecule of tri- + 2 molecules of = 2 molecules gyp- + 1 molecule of 
basic phosphate of monohydrate sum "super" or 

lime sulphuric acid acid-calcic 



phosphate. 



Molecular Weights. 



100 98 




CaC03 + H,S04 = CaSO^ + CO3 


+ HgO 


1 molecule of + 1 molecule of = 1 molecule + 1 molecule 


+ 1 molecule 


carbonate of monohy- of gypsum of carbon- 


f water 


lime dratesulphu- ic-acidgas 


or steam. 


ric ac'd 




Molecular Weights. 




245 294 




(A1P0;)3 + 3H,S04 = A1,(S04)3 + 


(H3P04)2 


1 molecule of + 3 molecules of = 1 molecule of + 2 


molecules 


phosphate of monohydrate sulphate of alu- phosphoric acid. 


alumina sulphuric acid mina 




Molecular Weights. 




« 





303 294 

(FePOJ, + 3H,S04 = Fe2(S04)3 + (HgPOJs 

1 molecule of + 3 molecules of = 1 molecule of + 2 molecules 
phosphate o f monohy d r a t e ferric sulphate phosphoric acid, 
iron sulphuric acid 

Molecular Weights. 



84 98 

MgCOg -f- H^SO^ = MgS04 + CO2 + H2O 

1 molecule + 1 molecule = 1 molecule + 1 molecule + 1 molecule 

carbonate of monohy- sulphate of carbonic- water (or 

of mag- drate sul- magnesia acid gas steam). 
nesia phuric acid 



110 



Tlie Phosjihates of America. 



Mdecular Weights. 



78 98 

CaFa + HoSO^ = CaSO, + 2HP 

1 molecule of + 1 molecule of = 1 molecule of + 2 molecules of 

calcium fluor- m o n o h ydrate gypsum hydrofluoric 

ide sulphuric acid acid. 

If three hundred and ten parts of trihasic phosphate of lime 
require one hundred and ninety-six p>arts of the pure monohydrate 
of sidphuric anhydride (HjSO^) for its transformation into mono- 
calcic or acid-phosphate, it follows that 1 part will require .632 
parts of the acid. 

Assuming the chamber acid we are called upon to use to be of 
50° B. strength, we refer to our table and find that it contains 
62.47 per cent, of pure HgSOi. The quantity of it to be taken as 
an equivalent of .632 parts of the latter, therefore, is found by the 
equation: 62.47 : 100 :: 0.632 a^ = 1.012 />ari!.<?, and this is the 
method of calculation we must observe for all the bodies shoion to 
exist in our sample of phosphate. 

TABLE SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF CHAMBER SULPHURIC ACID OF VARIOUS STRENGTHS 
-EXPRESSED IN POUNDS-REQUIRED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SUPERPHOSPHATE 
FROM NATURAL PHOSPHATES IN ORDER TO PRODUCE ACID-PHOSPHATE. 



Every pound of 
the following 
substances re- 
quires— 


Acid 

at 

48° B. 

Pounds. 


Acid 

at 

49° B. 

Pounds. 


Acid 

at 

50''B. 

Pounds. 


Acid 

at 
51° B. 
Pounds 


Acid 

at 

52° B. 

Pounds. 


Acid 

at 

53° B. 

Pounds. 


Acid 

at 

54° B. 

Pounds. 


Acid 

at 

55° B. 

Pounds. 


Tribasic phos- 


















phate of lime 


1.060 


1.036 


1.012 


.988 


.965 


.940 


.921 


.903 


Carbonate of 


















lime 


1.640 


1.605 


1.565 


1.535 


1.495 


1.456 


1.428 


1.411 


Phosphate of 
alumina ..... 


2.035 


2.008 


1.930 


1.884 


1.839 


1.790 


1.756 


1.721 


Phosphate of 
ii'on 


1.630 


1.595 


1.558 


1.521 


1.485 


1.446 


1.420 


1.390 


Carbonate of 


magnesia.. . . 


1.949 


1.905 


1.860 


1.815 


1.775 


1.726 


1.690 


1.660 


Fluoride of 


















lime 


2.006 


2.059 


2.010 


1.962 


1.916 


1.866 


1.830 


1.794 

1 



With a proper application of the data thus furnished there 
should be no difficulty in dealing with any phosphatic material of 
which the composition is accurately known, and it is only neces- 
sary, in proof of this, to give one more illustration. 

Returning to the phosphate we have already used, but assum- 



The Phosphates of America. Ill 

ing for the sake of variety that our chamber acid is of 52° B. 
strength instead of 50° B., we shall find that 

79.40 lbs. phosphate lime X .965 = 76.63 lbs. 

5.48 " carbonate " Xl.495= 8.19 " 

3.00 " phosphates ofiron and alumina combined X 1.839 = 5.52 " 

0.73 " carbonate of magnesia X 1.775= 1.28 " 

3.20 " fluoride of calcium Xl.916= 6.13 " 

The total quantity of 52° B. acid required for every 100 
lbs. of raw material, in order to bring the insol- 
uble phosphates into a soluble form, is therefore .. . 97.74 " 

It would thus apjjear to the unobserving, that a mixture of one 
ton each of the raw materials produces, after allowing for certain 
losses in the fabrication — such as evaporation — about two tons of 
fertilizer, and that we have gone to unnecessary trouble to dem- 
onstrate a very simple fact. Such "rule-of-thumb" reasoning is 
no doubt responsible for the many bad " supers " we meet with in 
the trade, and the present is therefore the right time to ask what 
kind of a fertilizer has been thus prepared. As a matter of abso- 
lute fact, no question is so little understood by the majority of 
those who should be able to answer it, and yet no other is of so 
much importance. 

We have been taught by chemistry that certain qualities are 
essential in a fertilizer in order that it may produce its results 
with rapidity and economy. Without a sufficient knowledge of the 
reactions involved, how can the possession of these qualities be in- 
variably assured and conscientiously guaranteed ? 

Let us therefore examine a little more closely into the nature 
of this very complicated body. 

As revealed to us in our own practice and by the experience of 
other chemists, there can be no reasonable doubt that the tricalcic 
phosphates of mineral origin, when treated with sulphuric acid, 
become partially or wholly changed into three distinct forms : 

1. Free phosphoric acid soluble in water. 

2. Acid phosphate of lime soluble in water. 

3. Neutral phosphate of lime insoluble in water, but readily 
soluble in neutral citrate of ammonia. 

There can also be no doubt that the nature and extent of this 
change, as well as the physical condition of the mass resulting 
from the mixture, will depend entirely upon two factors : 

A. The skill and intelligence of the practical operator. 

B. The nature and composition of the phosphate to be handled. 



112 The Phosphates of America. 

Assuming that A leaves nothing to be desired, the bulk of our 
average raw phosphates still offers two difficulties of considerable 
magnitude. If they are treated with the theoretical amount of 
acid, as in our example, they may yield a wet, pasty mass or mud 
which can only be dried with difficulty, and which therefore remains 
long unmarketable. If, on the other hand, something less than 
the theoretical quantity of acid be taken, a certain proportion of 
the substance remains unattacked and therefore becomes neither 
"water" nor "citrate" soluble. This is because there is in their 
composition, either a lack of some needed, or an excess of some 
objectionable constituent, and we are hence led to quite naturally 
inquire, what we are to regard as a defective phosphate. 

The result of prolonged investigations pursued under many 
and varying conditions has proved to us, that next to an insuffi- 
ciency of the phosphoric acid itself, a lack or insufficiency of car- 
bonate of lime is the most serious defect. This defect is aug- 
mented in the presence of iron arid alumina in any form. 

In Europe, and especially in England, high-grade phosphates 
have great commercial value, but they lose j^art of it when the 
oxides of iron and alumina, taken together, exceed three per cent. 

This is because the market price of the English manufactured 
fertilizer is made dei)endent upon its percentage of water-soluble 
phosphoric acid, and because, even when all other conditions are 
favorable, the presence of iron and alumina gradually causes 
"water "-soluble to revert into "citrate "-soluble phosphates when 
kept for a short time ready made in the factory. When an acid of 
greater average strength than 50° B. is used for the attack on the 
phosphate — and stronger acids are frequently necessary — free jjhos- 
phoric acid is at first almost exclusively produced as a result of 
the reaction. After a little time, when the temperature is at its 
maximum, this free jahosphoric acid commences to react upon the 
undecomposed matei'ial, and first of all upon any iron and alumina 
that may be present. Bodies insoluble in water result from this 
reaction, and hence the English fertilizer makers studiously avoid 
all mineral phosphates containing more than the stated maximum. 

In this country we are not handicapped by any such foolish 
prejudices. Our farmers are hard-headed and practical and have 
no marked preference for water-soluble phosphoric acid. They 
have been taught by theory and have proved by their own field 
practice, that citrate-soluble phosphates are readily transformed 
into plant food by the elements in the soil. This being the case, 



Tlie Phosphates of America. u 3 

«c«^ ... a fine, dry a.,cl .uercbantable condition, a,.,l this L can 
give the,n w.thout difflclty and without rega.-d ,0 a few ..."it" 
more „.. less of oxides of i..o„ and ah.mina, by caref..Ily reg . a ! 
.ng the percentage of carbonate of li.ne in o„r rawp,-„d„ct, fvben 
c.rc,.mstance» allow of this regnlation, thro.,gh the n.ixtu.e of a 
phosphate conta..nng .nnch carbonate, with another containing little 
m- „o«e-as for .nsta..ce, the blendi..g of Canadian apatite with 
Belg.an cretaceous phosphates-we personally prefer that co.nse 
but where such facilities a.-e wa..ti.,g, we i„fa.'iab,y . • t t "tro 
add.t.o., o finely powdced chalk, ora..y other cheap a.,d available 
sou.-ce of the ca.bonate. "."aiiaoie 

This method of facilitating spontaneous d,-yi..g was sng^ested 
by >,s to a ew ma„„factu,-e,-s some yea..s ago, and has bee.f de , e- 
ated and de..ou„ced as far too costly for general use. Those who 
denounced .t, however, have not yet n.ade k.,ow.. a cheaper o.„rcu-e 
pract.cal plan, for the one which they p,-„posed, of effect! tl 
drymg by he application of external heat i.Jove..; oro.. hot floo,; 
has .nvanably p.oved disast.-ous. How could it in fact do otW 
w. e, when we know that .nonocalcic or water-soluble pho.phae 
of 1 me cannot ex.st in a..y other tha.. the hydrated state" 

state r "1 "T '"■"''"'"'' "■" ^'^ ^'"""^ '" ™'"'' ">»' 'W» >rcl.-ated 
state can only be p..eserved by spontanecs d.-yi„<. and we had 
expen„,e..ted enough to know -hat this d.ving c^o.^b aX 
effected as we have described. We conse<,,;ent1y can see no mo e 
val.d .-eason to-day than we could te.. years ago, why, under p." pr 
restr.ct.ons, the ca.-bonate should .,ot be used ' ' 

The difficulties of a ma,...factu.-er only com.„enco when he is 
called upo.. to use a refracto,-y raw m.aterial, and it is on „„de 
such crcumstances that he finds scope to develop the fertil tv o 
h.s resources. f our mine.-al phosphates were .,„t of eve r va. y"^^," 
compos,t.on, a k.,„wledge of chemist,-y would .,ot be so else,u a! 
o the.r reatment, but as the case stands we a,-e helpless wUhl^ 
the ass.s a,.ce of the analyst. In his absence the manufi ture 
g.;opes bl,nd ly ,„ the da,.k, for he knows not what elements he 
nuxmg togethe.- and can predict nothh.g concen.ing the nat. ,e o 
the c<m,po„„d that w.ll result f..om their .eactios Jn each othl 

asser fo si' T'"'V''-' "°™ *'"''""" ""^ ^™'-''^. =">'' "s our 

th s pTr 0?:," "" ' f ""«" °' °"'- o^" ^™'*' "- -"' «Io- 
a fc n c° ^'•^^""™' "-^ S.ving some examples that should 



114 The Pliospliates of America. 

The following experiments were made with Florida phosphate 
containing as high as eight per cent, of iron and alumina. After 
having been tried in several factories and pronounced worthless for 
the purpose, they Avere finally made into superphosphates of excep- 
tionally good quality. 

The composition of the material was : 

Phosphate of lime 81 . 10 (equal to 37.20 P3O5) 

Carbonate of lime 3.70 

Oxides of iron and alumina (combined) 7 . 90 

' Moisture, insoluble, and undetermined 7.80 



100 

One hundred pounds of it were treated with 94 pounds of 55° B. 
chamber acid, and one hour after the " super" had dropped into the 
"den" a sample was drawn from various points, mixed, analyzed 
and found to contain : 

Total phosphoric anhydride soluble in hydrochloric acid. ... 20.01 
Of which there was found to be 

Water-soluble phosphoric anhydride 15.90 

Citrate-soluble " •' 16.30 

At the end of ten days this "super" was still in the "den" 
and in a very wet and unmanageable condition. Sam2:)ling and 
analyses were repeated, and it was now found to contain : 

Total phosphoric anhydride .soluble in hydrochloric acid. . . . 19.96 
Of which there was found to be 

Water-soluble phosphoric anhydride 15.10 

Citrate-soluble " " 17.01 

Another batch was made wuth the same lot of phosphate after 
adding to it eight per cent, by weight of very finely powdered chalk. 
Upon analyses before treatment with acid it was now shown to 
contain : 

Phosphate of lime 75.03 (equal to 34.40 P0O5) 

Carbonate of lime 10.73 

Oxides of iron and alumina (combined). 7 . 27 

Moisture, insoluble, and undetermined 6 . 98 



100 



One hundred pounds Avere passed through a 70-mesh screen and 
then worked up with 92 pounds of 55° B. chamber acid as before, and 
dropped into the "den." At the end of an hour, when the sample 



Tlce Phosphates of America. 115 

was drawn as iu tlie last experiment, it had already commenced to 
*' set," and the result of the analysis was : 

Total phosphoric anhydride soluble in hydrochloric acid. ... 18.97 
Of which there was found to be 

Water-soluble phosphoric adh^'dride 16.30 

Citrate-soluble " " 18.10 

At the end of thirty-six hours after mixing, it was dry enough to 
be dug out of the " den " and was in a very porous and friable state, 
the analysis at this time showing it to contain : 

Total phosphoric anhydride sohible in hydrochloric acid. ... 19.19 
Of which there was found to be 

Water-soluble phosphoric anhydride 16. IT 

Citrate-soluble " " 18.53 

The increase in the last figure was due to decrease in moisture. 

In order to test the question of the advisability or otherwise of 
using calcined phosphates from Florida, made by the prevailing 
method of firing the material in heaps, a thii'd experiment was 
performed at the same works. Before treatment with acid the 
finely comminuted material (70-mesh) was analyzed with the fol- 
lowing result : 

Phosphate of lime 77 . 18 (equal to 35 . 40 P0O5) 

Carbonate of lime 3 . 64 

Qviick-lime 4.65 

Oxides of alumina and iron (combined) 7 . 53 
Moisture, insoluble, and undetei'mined 7 . 00 

100 

After being AvorKed up with 92 pounds of 55° B. sulphuric acid 
it was dropped into the " den " as usual, and sampled and analyzed 
at the end of an hour, as in the other cases. It icas still quite wet 
and yielded : 

Total phosphoric anhydride soluble in hydrochloric acid. ... 18.73 
Of which there was found to be 

Water-soluble phosphoi'ic anhydride 15 . 54 

Citrate-soluble " " 16.79 

It was removed from the " den " on the eighth day after its manu- 
facture, in a very clamp and unsatisfactory condition, quite unfit 
to pass through the pulverizer or to be put into bags. It yielded 
on analysis : 



116 The Fhosphafes of America. 

Total phosphoric anhydride soluble iii hydrochloric acid. . .18.93 
Of whicli there was found to be 

Water-soluble phosphoric anhydride 15 . 03 

Citrate-soluble " " 17.01 

Unless our conclusions are ill-founded in every particular, these 
figures and details confirm the position we have assumed. 

In the first place, they prove that raw mineral phosphates con- 
taining a fair proportion of carbonate of lime may carry a high 
percentage of iron and alumina and yet yield a perfectly dry and 
pulverulent product, in which nearly all the phosphoric acid is in 
a readily soluble or available form. As a necessary consequence, 
while this amount of carbonate certainly calls for an increased 
outlay of sulphuric acid and thereby adds somewhat to the cost of 
manufacture, it is, nevertheless, in the end a source of the truest 
kind of economy and profit. 

In the second place, they prove what we have never ceased to 
claim, that the prevalent custom of calcining Florida phosphates is 
unscientific and harmful, and that whereas the production of a dry 
and porous "super" always follows the use of carbonate, the pres- 
ence of free lime always retards the drying action. 

In the third place, they prove the necessity for complete chemical 
analysis of the raw material, and demonstrate the utter worthless- 
ness of analytical reports which merely give the percentage of total 
phosphoric acid, calculated to its equivalent of tricalcic or "bone" 
phosphate. What kind of iron and steel would be produced, if 
those concerned in that industry were content to know the mere 
percentage of metallic iron contained in a sample of iron ore? 

Turning now from the purely chemical, to that side of the 
industry Avhich calls for mechanical details, we come first to the 
operation of grinding the raw phosphate, and we may be allowed 
to say that this is a matter for the most serious attention. 

A growing recognition of the necessity for extremely fine 
grinding is one of the most satisfactory results of scientific teach- 
ings, and we are glad to see that progressive manufacturers now ad- 
mit it to be the only means of attaining high dissolving efficiency. 
In proportion to the natural hardness of the phosphate rock 
this necessity for fine separation of the particles increases, and it 
has been the experience, with Canadian apatites for example, that 
unless the material is so disintegrated as to pass freely through a 
70 or even an 80 mesh screen, it is only very slowly and incom- 
pletely acted upon by 50° B. sulphuric acid. 



Tlie Pho&pliates of America. 



117 



Several popular methods of grinding now give great satisfaction 
on the industrial scale, and of these we may mention the plants 
which comprise — 

First. — A Blake stone-crusher for reducing the lumps to the 
size of small marbles, attached to a set of French burr mill-stones 
fitted with revolving screens up to 90 or 100 mesh. 

Second. — The Sturtevant mill and crusher, which is composed 
of two cylindrical heads, or cups, arranged upon the opposite sides 
of a case, into which they slightly project, facing each other, and are 
made to revolve in opposite directions. The rock, being conveyed 
to the interior of the case through the opening at the top, is re- 




THE STURTEVANT MILL IN CROSS-SECTION. 

tained and prevented from dropping below the revolving heads or 
cups by a cast-iron screen, and entering, as it must, the heads or 
cups in revolution, is immediately thrown out again from each cup, 
in opposite directions, with such tremendous force that the rock 
from one cup in the collision with the rock thrown oppositely from 
the other cup is crushed and pulverized, and the grinding, which 
otherwise would be upon the mill, is transferred to the material, 
which is at once reduced to powder. 

The mill is composed of four elementary parts — a case, two 
hollow heads, or cups, and a screen. 

The principle of its construction is shown in the above cross- 
section of its elementary parts. 



lis The Pliosphates of America. 

B B represent the two opj^osite heads or cups of the mill hold- 
ing the two bushings E E, which slightly project, into the case. 
At Z Z, the stone hollow cones are shown (which form themselves 
in each head by the packing of the rocks being ground after the 
machine has been run a few moments). The hopper is filled with 
rocks, which drop into the case of the machine between the two 
heads. In a few moments after the mill has started the two stone 
hollow cones Z Z form themselves and become as hard as the 
rock. When these hollow cones have formed, the centrifugal force 
given by their revolution will hurl out of the hollow cones in the 
general directions indicated by the arrows all the rocks that are 
forced into them. The iron confining-screen C is of very small 
diameter, and an important object is accomj^lished by this arrange- 
ment. The ground rock is let out of the screen at once. 

"VVe have found it advisable to attach a set of rock-emery 
stones to this mill for grinding the fine tailings, which amount to 
about thirty per cent. In this waj^ the average milled product of 
70-mesh may be fairly taken as about two tons per hour. 

lliird. — The Grifiin mill, which is of the class known as a 
roller and die mill, in which the material is reduced by being 
crushed by a roll running within and against the inner surface of 
a, ring or die. 

It is a substantial mill and receives its jwwer by a pulley run- 
ning horizontally. From this pulley is suspended the roller-shaft, 
by means of a universal joint, and to the lower exti'emity of this 
shaft is rigidly secured the crushing-roll, which is thus free to 
swing in any direction within the case. 

The illustration on the next page shows that the case consists 
of the base or pan (24) containing the ring or die (70), against 
which works the roll (31) and upon the inner vertical surface of 
which the crushing is done. 

This pan or base has a number of openings through it down- 
ward outside of the ring or die Avhich lead into a jjit or receptacle 
below. Upon this base is secured the screen-frame (44), which is 
surrounded with a sheet-iron cover (45) and to the top of which is 
fastened a conical shield (25) open at the ajiex, through Avhich the 
roll-shaft works. 

To this cone is attached the feeder-arm (34) by means of which 
the automatic feeder is operated. The crushing-roll is attached to 
the end of the lower or roll-shaft (l), and just above the roll is the 
fan (7). On the under side of the roll are shown shoes or ploughs 



The Phosphates of America. 



119 



(5), varying in shape according to the nature of the work to be done. 
The pulley (17) revolves upon the tapered and adjustable bearing- 
stud (20), which is in turn supported by the frame composed of the 
standards (23). Two of these standards (23a) are extended above 




SECTIONAL VIEW OP THE GRIFFIN RHLL. 

the pulley to carry the arms (22) in which is secured the hollow 
journal pin (12). Within the pulley is the universal joint from 
which the roll-shaft (1) is suspended. This joint is composed of 
the ball or sphere (9) with trunnions attached thereto. These 
trunnions work in half-boxes (11) which slide up and down in re- 



120 The PJiospliates of America. 

cesses in the ijulley-head casting (16). The joint in the pulley is 
inclosed by means of the cover (13), thus keeping the working parts 
away from all dust and grit, and lubricating oil is supplied for all 
parts needing it through the hollow pin (12). 

When the mill is started, the pulley and the roller-shaft revolve 
together, the roller hanging free in the centre of the ring, Avhen, the 
shaft being pushed outward, the roll on its lower end comes in con- 
tact with the ring or die and immediately begins to travel around 
on the latter's inner surface, pressing against it with a force suffi- 
cient to effectually pulverize anything that comes in its way. The 
material to be reduced is fed into the mill in sufficient quantity to 
fill the pan as high a.s the shoes or ploughs on the lower side of the 
roll. The ploughs then stir it up and throw it against the ring, so that 
it is acted upon by the roll, and when fairly in operation, the whole 
body of loose material whirls around rapidly within the j^an and up 
against the screens, through which all that is sufficiently fine passes 
at once, the coarser portion falling down to be acted upon again. 

The universal joint, by which the roll-shaft is connected with 
the pulley, allows perfect freedom of movement to the roll so that 
it can easily pass over obstructions of any kind. Pieces of iron or 
steel, such as are usually found in all rock to be ground, do no dam- 
age to the mill. 

In dry grinding the fine material that passes through the screens 
falls downward through the openings outside of the ring into the 
receptacle underneath, from which it is cari'ied by a conveyer pro- 
vided for that purpose. 

The fan attached to the shaft above the roll draws a small 
quantity of air in at the top of the cone, forcing it through the 
screens and out into the discharge, thus effectually keeping all 
dust within the mill. 

It is stated of this mill that four tons of South Carolina phos- 
phate rock (seventy-five per cent, of which would pass through a 
70-mesh screen) may be ground and passed through the screens in 
an hour. 

Fourth. — The Frisbee-Lucop phosphate mill, which is built of 
steel and weighs about three tons. It is driven by belt, develops 
a speed of 300 revolutions under full feed, requires 18 horse -j^ower, 
and is said to be capable of grinding 15 tons of phosphate rock 
to a fineness of No. 150 mesh, per day of ten hours. 

The pulverization of the material is effected by heavy cylin- 
drical rollers which are caused to revolve uj)on the inner surface 



The Phosphates of America. 121 

of a steel ring, against which they exert a pressure of some 2000 
pounds per square inch. The effect of this force is augmented by 
a differential grinding motion imparted by the drivers. 

As fast as it is produced, the pulverized is separated from the 
coarse material, by gravity, being drawn from the mill through 
pipes connected with the top of the casing by an exhaust-fan, and 
carried to settling bins or chambers. 

Five different varieties of steel, each having special chai-acter- 
istics suited to the requirement, are used for the interior or work- 
ing parts of the machine. The wearing parts, being few in number 
and simple in shape, are readily replaced when Avorn. 

The construction of the mill will be easily understood from the 
following transverse vertical section through its centre. 

The shaft S is of hammered steel, 39 inches between bearings. 




THE FRISBEE-LUCOP PHOSPHATE MU.L. 

which are 3^ inches by 10 inches long. Pulleys are double-arm, 
fast and loose, 28 inches in diameter by 8-inch face. 

To the shaft is keyed the driving-arm A A previously forced 
on. This is a solid casting 6Jg- inches thick through the ends and 
9| inches through the flanges or hub. The rear ends of the arm 
are made concave to receive the rolls when the mill is at rest. 
Upon both sides of the arm are fastened the discs D D, annular 
plates fitting around the flanges of the arm and firmly secured to 
it by two disc-bolts 1| inches in diameter. 

Between the discs are placed the drivers B B, two in number, 
rigidly bolted to the discs by the two driver-bolts, 1| inches square. 
The drivers are cylindrical, Q^^ inches long by 6 inches diameter, 
made of cast-steel or forged iron, and weigh 45 pounds each. When 
worn by contact with the rolls they may be turned a quarter cir- 
cumference on the bolt. This may be repeated until the four 
sides are worn. 



122 



The Pliosphates of America. 



There are two rolls, R R, of chrome steel, 8 inches in diameter 
"by 6-inch face, weighing about 80 pounds each. They are held fi'ee 
in position by the discs between their drivers and the rear ends of 
the arm. 

The fan-blades F F, four in number, are of steel or 
wrought-iron and are firmly fastened on each disc exteriorly by 
the disc-bolt and dowel-^jin, and distribute the material to be pul- 
verized into the path of the rolls. 

Four liners, L L, or thin steel plates are placed between the 




VIEW OF TRANSVERSE VERTICAL SECTION OF FRISBEE-LUCOP PHOSPHATE MILL. 

ends of the rolls and the discs (cut to receive them) and take the 
wear off the ends of the rolls. 

The revolving parts of the mill centred within the ring have 
all a uniform motion with the shaft, but the rolls have an inde- 
pendent motion around their axes. The ring G G is of rolled 
steel, 6 inches face and 3 inches in thickness, held in position by 
wedge-keys K K to the casing of the mill C C. Exterior to 
the "centre" are two small circulating fans (wrought blades in a 
cast hub), the purpose of which is to keep the pulverized material 
in circulation so that it may be readiiy withdrawn by the exhaust- 
fan which carries the product of the mill to the settling-bins. 

The casing of the mill is of cast-iron, divided horizontally. 



The Phosphates of America. 123 

The upper and lower lialves are held together by hinged bolts in 
slots cut in the flange of each section. The upper half is hinged 
to the lower at one side and is easily raised so as to give free 
access to the interior of the mill for examination and the replacing 
of worn parts. The casing and the three pedestal bearings for 
the shaft are seated upon a heavy bed-plate as indicated in the illus- 
trations. Being a balanced machine it does not require elaborate 
or expensive foundations. 

The difliculty of estimating the exact cost of grinding phos- 
phates to a fineness of 70 or 80 mesh, either by the methods we 
have thus described or any others now in use and perhaps equally 
good, is naturally very considerable, since so much must, perforce, 
depend upon the nature of the material itself. We have seen it va- 
riously estimated at from 50 cents to |2 per ton, and have even met 
those who claim to be able to do the needful Avork for less than 
the first figure. As a matter of sober fact, however, we have 
found that in practice, when breakages, repairs and general wear 
and tear are taken into account, $1.50 per ton is more like the 
proper figure, and we therefore usually adopt it as a fair basis 
for calculations. 

The ojieration of grinding having been satisfactorily performed, 
the 2ihosphate is submitted to complete analysis and, its chemical 
composition being thus known, is finally conveyed to the mixer. 

The mixing together of the raw materials in the proportions 
determined by proper computation is performed in a commodious 
shed, of Avhich the annexed drawing Avill convey the necessary under- 
standing. It must be near to the sulphuric-acid chambers, and 
directly connected with a high shaft or chimney and a condensing 
apparatus or scrubber ; the latter for absoibing the noxious fumes 
set free by the decomposing mass. 

A strong brickwork shell with a good foundation is built in 
the centre of the shed. This shell is divided off into from six to 
tw^elve chambers or "dens" some 15 feet square and 20 feet high, 
each of which must communicate, by means of a good-sized flue,' 
with the scrubber and factory chimney. 

The air-tight iron doors of the "dens" must slide easily back- 
ward or forward when the superphosphate has become dry enouo-h 
to be dug out. '^ 

The tops of the "dens" are fitted with mixers of cylindrical 
shape about 10 feet long, 3 feet in diameter and 4 feet high. 
The mixer may be constructed of w^ood lined with sheet lead, or 



124 



The Phosphates of America. 



of brick, or of iron, or in fact any suitable material in accordance 
with tlie fancy. It stands over the dividing wall of two " dens ;" is 
generally provided with movable traps for discharging its contents 
at either of its ends and with a revolving axle or shaft fitted with 
arms or sjiirals. It should have a hopper and a gas-flue, and the 
driving gear must be of wrought-iron. Running into it from the 




SIDE VIEW OF A SUPERPHOSPHATE WORKS. 
A, Discharge from mixer to '■'■den." 1, 2, 3, 4, Exit-flues conducting fumes to condenser. 

top directly under the hopper is a 2-inch lead pipe fitted with a 
stop-cock and connected with a tank of sulphuric acid placed di- 
rectly overhead. The acid tank is provided with a gauge which 
shows the exact amount of liquid run into each batch as required 
by calculation. The tank communicates in its turn with the acid 
reservoirs from which, when emptied, it is replenished by a pump. 
The phosphate is brought forward from the mill in buckets on an 



Tlie Phosphates of America. 



125 



I'udless chain. Each bucket holds a known weight of material and 
each empties itself into the hopper of the mixer. Where there is 
no convenience for establishing an endless chain, the material can 
be carried to the hopper in sacks direct from the mill. When 
this hopper contains 1000 pounds of the powder, the acid tap 
underneath it is turned on, the agitators of the mixer are set in 
motion, and then the powder is allowed to run in a steady stream 
from the hojijjer. 

When all the acid and the phosphate are in the mixer, the 
agitators are made to revolve with swiftness and energy for about 
two minutes, after which the trap of the mixer is opened and its 




SUPERPHOSPHATE MIXER. 

contents, a thick mud or mortar-like mass, are shot from it into 
one of the " dens " at its either extremity. 

These operations are repeated until the "den" is full, care 
being taken to keep the gas-flues open and to see that the acid 
always runs into the mixer in advance of the powder. A neo-Iect 
of the latter precaution invariably results in serious difficulties 
from clogging. 

Each charge should be equal to an average of about 1900 
pounds, and each "den " should hold about 120 tons. Assuming, 
therefore, the length of time required for running a charge to be 
five minutes, it is an easy matter to fill up a " den " each day of ten 
working hours. 

The mixed mass enters the "dens" in a semi-liquid state and 



126 



The Pliosphates of America. 



soon becomes extremely liot, generally attaining a temperature of 
from 230° to 240° F. AVhen properly composed it commences to 
" set " almost at once, and at the end of the second day is suffi- 
ciently hard to be dug out of the "den" with picks and shovels. 

In this state it is loaded into automatic dumping-cars and piled 
up in heaps, all large lumj^s being broken down by a blow from 
the shovel. In a couple of days it is ready to pass through a dis- 
integrator and may then be put up in bags. 

The average superphosphate manufactured in this country con- 
tains about thirteen to fourteen per cent, of "available" F^O^^y 
but the rapid development of the industry during the past few 
years has led to the introduction of what are known as "high- 




AUTOMATIC DUMPING CAR FOR SUPERPHOSPHATE WORKS. 



grade supers," containing about forty-five per cent, of phosphoric 
anhydride (PgOg) in a "water" and "citrate" soluble form. The 
plan upon which these goods are produced is perfectly scientific 
and rational, much more so, in fact, than the one we have just 
described, for it consists in using phosphoric acid as the solvent in 
lieu of the oil of vitriol. 

The theory of the action of phosphoric acid upon pure phos- 
phate of lime may be explained by either of the two following 
simple equations, or, to speak more correctly, by a combination 
of both of them : 



CasPgOg + 4(H3P04) + 6H3O 
1 insoluble tri- + 4 phosphoric + 6 water 
calcic phos- 
phate 



= 3 CaH4(P04)2(HgO)2 
= 3 crystalhzed "acid" 
or " soluble " phos- 
phate. 



The Phosphates of America. 127 

2Ca3P30, + 2(H3PO,) + 12 H,0 =^C2.^B.^{^0,)2(H.,0)4.. 
2 insoluble tri- + 2 phosphoric + 12 water = 3 crystallized neutral 

calcic phos- acid phosphate, soluble in 

P*^^^^ neutral citrate of am- 

monia. 

The advantages offered by the cheap production of such an 
article as this in commercial form are, of course, too manifest to 
need any elaborate explanation, but it may nevertheless not be out 
of plsice to mention a few of tliem. 

In the manufacture of superphosphates we have seen that the 
desired solubility, either in water or in citrate of ammonia, is at- 
tained at the cost of doubling the bulk of the raw material by the 
addition of an acid which practically serves no other purpose and 
has no other value than as a dissolvent. If the original material, 
therefore, contain sixty per cent, of tricalcic phosphate, the " super '' 
can only contain thirty per cent., and this, from the agricultural 
consumers' standpoint, is certainly an anomaly, and, apart from 
any question of solubility, must remain so for two reasons : 

1. A ton of sixty-per-cent. phosphate of lime, finely ground but 
insoluble in water or citrate of ammonia, can be purchased at some 
central point for, say, |10. 

2. A ton of superphosphate, containing only thirty per cent, 
phosphate of lime, cannot be purchased at the same spot for less 
than $15. 

In the one case, freight is paid upon only forty per cent, of inert 
material, whereas in the other it is paid upon seventy per cent. 

Apart from the perfectly legitimate profits attached to the 
manipulation and transformation of a sluggish into an active body, 
those who at present derive the greatest benefit from the trade iii 
fertilizers are the railroad companies. If it Avere for no other 
object than the reduction of freight charges to a minimum limit, it 
is consequently worth while to consider the advisability of substi- 
tuting for the old method of manufacture, the one which we shall 
now attempt to describe. 

The details of superphosphate mixing, and the reactions involved 
in the process, have been gone over in a sufficiently ample manner 
to prepare the way for the statement, that the cheapest and best- 
known method of producing phosphoric acid is by displacing it from 
its combination with phosphates of lime by means of oil of vitriol. 
^ The proportion of phosphoric acid contained in the raw material 
being a matter of only relative importance, the adoption of such a 



128 



TJte Phosjjhates of America. 



method would open up a channel for the use of many low-grade 
phosphates, which now, for lack of a market, are practically of no 
value. The only essential conditions to be fulfilled are : 

A. That the material shall contain a minimum of carbonate of 
lime, in order that no unnecessary excess of sulphuric acid need be 
used. 

S. That it shall contain as small a percentage as possible of any 
combination of iron and alumina, both of which, besides being diffi- 
cultly soluble, contribute to the formation of a gelatinous mass that 
seriously interferes* with the ijro2:»er carrying out of the ojDcrations. 

In order to ascertain the quantity of sulphuric acid necessary to 
insure the desired reaction, it is of course essential that the exact 
composition of the raw material be first determined by a reliable 
analysis. Supposing ourselves to be in possession of this informa- 
tion, we may imagine that we are called upon to deal with a 
mineral phosphate containing : 

Moisture and organic matter 4.00 

Phosphate of lime 55,00 

Carbonate of lime 3.50 

Phosphates of iron and alumina 6.50 

Carbonate of magnesia 0.75 

Fluoride of lime 2.25 

Sandy and siliceous matters 28.00 

100 
The quantity of oil of vitriol of various strengths required for 
the complete liberation of all the phosidliorie acid, and the satisfac- 
tion of all the bases in such a sample as this, is very readily calcu- 
lated from the figures in the following table : 

TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF CHAMBER SULPHURIC ACID OF VARIOUS 
STRENGTHS REQUIRED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PHOSPHORIC ACID FROM 
NATURAL PHOSPHATES. 



Every pound of 


Acid 


Acid 


Acid 


Acid 


Acid 


Acid 


Acid 


Acid 


the following- 


at 


at 


at 


at 


at 


at 


at 


at 


substances re- 


48° B. 


49° B. 


50° B. 


51° B. 


53° B. 


53° B. 


54° B. 


.55° B. 


quires— 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Tricalcic phos- 
















phate of lime 


1.590 


1.554 


1.517 


1.483 


1.446 


1.408 


1.382 


1.352 


Carbonate of 


















luiie 


1.640 


1.605 


1.565 


1.535 


1.495 


1.456 


1.428 


1.411 


Phosphate of 


















iron 


1.630 


1.595 


1.558 


1.521 


1.485 


1.446 


1.420 


1.390 


Phosphate of 


















alumina 


3.025 


2.008 


1.930 


1.884 


1.839 


1.790 


1.756 


1.721 


Carbonate of 


















magnesia... . 


1.940 


1.905 


1.860 


1.815 


1.775 


1.726 


1.690 


1.660 


Fluoride of 


















lime 


2.006 


2.059 


2.010 


1.962 


1.916 


1.866 


1.830 


1.794 



The Pliosphates of America. 129 

Selecting an acid strength of 50° B. for our illustration, we 
shall find that our sura will work out thus : 

55 lbs. phosphate of Hme X 1.517 - 83. 44 lbs. vitriol of 50° B. 

3.50 " carbonate of hme X 1.565= 5.48 " " " 

6.50 " phosphateofironandahiminax 1.930 = 12.55 " " " 

0.75 " carbonate of magnesia X 1.860= 1.40 " " " 

2.25 " fluoride of lime X 2.010= 4.52 " " " 

Total sulphuric acid of 50° B. strength re- 
quired for every 100 pounds of the above 
phosphate ! .107.39 lbs. 

The decomposition of the raw material is effected in large wood- 
en tanks made of suitable wood and provided with wooden agitators. 

2147 pounds 60° B. sulphuric acid are run into each tank and 
diluted with water until its strength is reduced to 14° B. The 
agitators are now set in active motion, and 2000 pounds of the phos- 
phate, finely ground as directed for superphosjohate manufacture, 
are slowly added and the stirring is continued for five hours. Open 
steam is occasionally blown in by an injector through the side of 
the tank, in order to keep up the temjaerature of the mixture. 

At the end of the specified time the cream from each tank is 
run off into filters — large wooden vessels lined with lead and pro- 
vided with false bottoms. 

The hydrated sulphate of lime here separates from the solution 
of phosphoric acid, the latter passing through the filter as a bright 
straw-colored fluid, of a gravity which, at first, is about 12° B., 
but which gradually gets reduced by careful washing to 1° B. 

By the exei'cise of ordinary care and precautions, all cracks on 
the surface of the gypsum contained in the filters may be avoided, 
for were they to be formed, too ready an outlet would be afforded 
for the washing-water. The washing is stopped directly the grav- 
ity reaches 1° B., and the hydrated sulphate of lime is first piled 
up in the centre of the filters to drain, and is then carried to the 
dump ; the last runnings from the filters, which are too weak for 
economical concentration — everything under 5° B. — being used to 
dilute the sulphuric acid in subsequent operations. 

If the wooden tanks be put up on the large scale in series of 
ten, a batch of the emulsion can be discharged from them, one 
after the other, every half -hour, when once they are all in proper 
working order, and in this manner twenty tons of phosphate can be 
treated per day. 



130 The Phosphates of America. 

All the phosphoric-acid liquor above 5° B, which has passed 
through the filters is blown by an "egg" (similar to the one de- 
scribed in the chapter on suljjhuric acid) into an elevated tank, and 
thence it runs by gravitation to the evaporators, a series of leaden 
pans of any convenient form of construction, and heated either by 
a direct fire from the top or from the bottom or by the waste 
steam from the boilers. If any choice is to be awarded to either 
of these modes of evaporation, it must, in our opinion, fall uj^on 
top-heating ; for as the hot gas comes into direct and immedi- 
ate contact with the acid and the vapors produced are at once re- 
moved by the draught, it is evidently the quickest, while the 
pans are much less acted upon and freer from the danger of being 
burnt through than those which are fired from below. The vessel 
must, however, be kept constantly full and at a uniform level, in 
order to pi-otect the lead from any direct contact with the flame ; 
nor is this a matter of any difficulty, since the heavy concentrated 
acid continuously sinks downward, and may be drawn off from the 
bottom, in a stream directly proportionate to that in which fresh 
acid from the tank above is allowed to run in at the top. 

In works where it is thought best to heat the pans from the 
bottom, the latter are generally so arranged in sets, that the weak 
acid flows in at one end in a regulated stream, and is transferred 
from pan to pan by overflow-pipes. The pans themselves in this 
case are placed on cast-iron jjlates, those at the fire end being very 
thick, to protect them from the extra heat, and generally lined with 
clay and fire-brick. The fireplace comes under the strongest of the 
pans, and the flame gradually travels towards the weakest, such an 
arrangement being required by the fact that the concentration be- 
comes more difiicult as the acid gains in strength. According to 
extensive and perfectly trustAvorthy experiments, a series of pans 
having a total area of 118 superficial feet, with a fireplace of 6| 
superficial feet, can produce, when properly constructed, eight tons 
of phosphoric acid in twenty-four hours, concentrated to 45° B., 
with a consumption of no more than twelve to fourteen per cent, 
of its own weight of coal. 

During the progress of the evaporation, the acid solution de- 
posits a considerable quantity of sulphate of lime, and it is there- 
fore generally necessary to decant off the fluid before the final 
degree of concentration can be attained. The gypsum can be re- 
moved to one of the filters already described, and washed out with 
any liquid that may be running into them from the mixing-tuns. 



Tlte PJiosphates of America. 



131 



The finished liquid at 45° B. should contain nearly forty-fivo 
jjer cent, of phosphoric anhydride, with only a mere trace of lime. 
It will probably be contaminated to some extent by magnesia and 
iron and alumina, but neither of these, provided it is not present 
in any great quantity, will be a source of serious difficulty for the 
purpose in view. 

We are now in possession of an acid body, which can take 
the place of sulphuric acid in the manufacture of soluble and 
assimilable phosphates, and we have only to come back to the old 
superphosphate mixers, and use the same modes of manipulation 
and the same system of calculation as in superphosphate manu- 
facture. All that is needed is to change the numbers, in order 
to accord with the different composition of the two acids. 

A raw phosphate of about the following composition may be 
taken as a typical material for economical treatment : 

Moisture and organic matter 3 .00 

Phosphate of lime 75.00 (equal to 34.40 PaO^) 

Carbonate of lime 7.50 

Alumina and iron oxides (combined) 3.00 

Fkiorides, silicates and sand 11 .50 



100 

The quantity of phosphoric acid of 45° B, required to trans- 
form this insoluble phosphate into a "soluble" or readily "avail- 
able " form may be taken from the annexed table. In calculating 
it we have assumed in a practical way, and without pretension 
to absolutely theoretical accuracy, that an acid solution of 45° B. 
"factory test " will contain, say, forty-two per cent, of phosphoric 
anhydride (P2O5) or about fifty-eight j^er cent, of phosphoric acid 
(H3PO,). 



TABLE FOR USE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF HIGH-GRADE SUPERPHOSPHATES 
FROM PHOSPHORIC ACID OF 45° B. 



Every Pound of the followinu- Substances Re- 
quires for its Transformation 


Into Water- 
Sol uble or "Acid 
Phosphate." 


Into Citrate-Solu- 
ble or Neutral 
Phosphate. 


Mineral phosphate of lime 


Pounds. 
3.310 
3.380 


Pounds. 
0.635 
1.690 
3.113 
3.370 


Carbonate of lime 


Iron oxide 


Alumina oxide 





We therefore proceed to ascertain that : 



132 Tlie Fhosjjhates of America. 

75 lbs. phosphate of hme. . . X -625 require 46.88 lbs. phosphoric acid. 
7)^ lbs. carbonate of lime.. X 1-690 " 12.68 
8 lbs. iron and alumina as 

oxides, say X 3.000 " 9.00 " " 



So that the total phosphoric-acid solution 
of 45° B. reqviired to render 100 pounds 
of the above phosphate soluble in neu- 
tral citrate of ammonia is 68.56 pounds. 

This quantity being the known required minimum, it is easy 
after one or two trials of the drying capacity of the mixture, to 
increase it at will up to any desired limit, it being evident that the 
more it is increased the greater will be the amount of '■^water-sol- 
uble ''"'phosphate produced ! 

The mixture, when made, is dropi^ed, charge by charge, into the 
" dens," where it very soon sets into a porous mass, not quite dry, 
but sufficient]}^ so to be easily dug out. This mass is cut up into 
pieces of reasonable size and dried by hot air, in sheds constructed 
for the purpose, in any form, or on any plan, that will facilitate 
effective and rajiid work. Directly it is sufficiently dryfor the 
market it is put through a disintegrator and filled into bags. 

In Europe the great superiority of this method of dealing with 
raw phosphates over the more generally established jjlan has been 
recognized for some years, and the high-grade product is much in 
vogue in Germany and France. The rough-and-ready jilant which we 
have outlined has been supplemented in those countries by much 
labor-saving machinery in the form of mixers and filtering presses, 
the majority of which are protected by patent and chiefly manu- 
factured in Germany, at Halle an der Saale. For the jDurjDoses of 
experimental demonstration, however, we have deemed it preferable 
to dispense with a description of all costly foreign apparatus, feeling 
that we may trust to the well-known genius of our American me- 
chanical engineers for the construction of such plant as may be 
necessary in different localities, and under varying circumstances. 
When we bear in mind the proverbial conservatism of the farmer 
and his distaste for innovations, Ave shall see the necessity for going 
slow in this matter, for it will doubtless take some time to create 
an active demand from his direction for a concentrated superjDhos- 
phate. Meantime, however, those who ai'e engaged in handling 
fertilizers as middlemen will be more readily convinced, esj^ecially 
when they appreciate the economy in ti'ansportation, if in nothing 
else, which such a product will afford. How great this economy 



The Phosphates of America. 133 

really is can easily be shown by a few figures Avhich, while not pre- 
sented as the actual cost at which large and well-situated manu- 
facturers could produce it, will suffice for purposes of illustration. 

Commencing with the cost of phosphoric acid and assuming 
the factory to be located at a point within easy access by rail or 
by water, or both, we may calculate that 

1 ton of 3000 pounds mineral phosphate, containing fifty 

to sixty per cent, phosphate of lime will cost $4.00 

Grinding same to a fineness of 70 to 80 mesh. .. " 1.50 

3130 pounds chamber sulphuric acid of 50° B. at, say, 

$7.00 per ton will cost 7.50 

Labor of mixing and filtering, wear and tear, etc., cal- 
culated at the rate of, say, $1 per gross ton of raw 
material handled will cost 3.00 

Concentration, labor, wear and tear of plant, calculated 

at $1 per gross ton of raw material will cost 3.00 

Total net cost of producing, say, 1000 pounds 

of 45° B. phosphoric acid $17.00 

Cost of the 45° B. phosphoric acid per ton of 

3000 pounds $34.00 

Passing now to the manufacture of high-grade superphosphate 
by decomposing the mineral phosphates with this acid instead of 
with chamber sulphuric acid, we shall find that it works out thus: 

1 ton mineral phosphate, containing seventy-five to 
eighty per cent, tribasic phosphate, and of about the 
general composition shown in the examples selected 

for former calculations will cost $14.50 

Grinding same to 70 or 80 mesh " 1.50 

1 ton phosphoric acid of 45° B " 34.00 

Cost of mixing, manipulating, drying, pulverizing and 
bagging the finished material, calculated at $3 
per ton of material used 5.00 

$55.00 

The net product of the mixtvire after allowing fifteen 
per cent, for loss, by evaporation and in manufact- 
ure, will be, say, thirty-four hundred pounds. It 
will contain ^/^eere hundred and thirty ^iounds of 
phosphoric anhydride (PgOg) and costs $55.00 

Its cost per ton, ready for market, and containing forty- 
five per cent, of mixed water-soluble and citrate- 
soluble phosphoric anhydride will therefore be $33.50 

Or a little over 3| cents per pound of phosphoric anhydride. 



134 Tlie Pliosijhates of America. 

Since, as we have already explained, the great bulk of our super- 
phosphate is not made to contain more than from twelve to four- 
teen per cent, of phosphoric acid soluble in Avater and ammonium 
citrate, and since it, for this reason, only represents on an average the 
equivalent of thirty per cent, of hone phosphate of lime made sola- 
hie, it necessarily follows that more than three tons of it would be 
required to equal one ton of the concentrated or high-grade ma- 
terial. The latter contains the equivalent of ninety-nine per cent, 
of bone phosphate of lime, made practically as soluble and equally 
available, and is therefore, as we have said, specially adapted to the 
requirements of the middleman. The distributer would oidy pay 
freight on one ton where he now pays it on three, and could, if he 
so desired, dilute it down to the ordinary commercial strength by 
the addition of gypsum, or any other convenient and low-priced 
filler. 

A fruitful subject for angry discussion and costly litigation has 
been that bearing on the noxious vapors evolved during the manu- 
facture of fertilizers from any of the phosphates we have described. 
It has been urged, and, to our minds, very consistently, that we 
should apply to them the same methods so successfully used in 
suppressing the devastating fumes from other chemical works, 
and there cannot be a doubt that if this were done, the present 
menace to the health and comfort of the workmen, and others 
employed in and about the neighborhood, would disappear. 

As we have already pointed out, the fumes of fertilizer fac- 
tories chiefly consist of carbonic acid, hydrofluoric acid, silicic 
tetrafluoride, sulphuric acid and steam ; and of all these, the most 
dangerous to life and health are the compounds generated by the 
liberation of fluorine from the fluoride of calcium, the average pro- 
portion of which in our phosphates may be safely taken at about 
three per cent. The quantity of deadly vapor thus becomes very 
large in some of our big works, but it need not necessarily be alarm- 
ing provided the gas-flues be properly worked. A ventilating-fan 
would easily conduct it all into the scrubber, where, meeting with a 
fine spray of very cold water, it would immediately be decomposed, 
hydrofluosilicic acid and gelatinous silica being formed. The acid 
could either be washed away into the main sewers or passed off into 
an open drain, and the finely divided silica could be allowed to de- 
posit itself on the bottom of the condenser. 

Mr. John Morrison, an English chemical engineer of great abil- 
ity, who has done a great deal of valuable work in this connection 



Tlie Phosphates of Ame^-ica. 



135 



and devised the very practical scrubbing apparatus shown in the 
annexed sketch, says that the mixer fumes possess within them- 
selves every element needed for their speedy destruction and but a 
single element (heat) to in any way retard it ; and this is quite 



^ 9 







, ^ 1 □ 

ia3«o± roN lAioaj 3mj ilx3i Q 




asMox s"ON woad amd J.ix3 



«] 



;?**: 



P 



IZ 



true. He objects, therefore, to the introduction of steam, on the 
ground that with every ton of superjihosjjhate produced at least 
five per cent, of Avater in the form of steam is evolved, and as such 
a quantity is quite sufficient to saturate the effluent gases it is use- 
less to employ any more. While a steam -jet will aid the draught ; 
augment the agitation of the gases ; and hasten the purification of 



136 The Pliospliatcs of America. 

an atmosphere thickly laden Avith noxious vapors, it is nevertheless 
demonstrable that to the extent of the heat liberated in its own 
condensation, it retards the j^erfect filtration of the residual vapors, 
and anybeneiit accruing from its introduction is wholly dispropor- 
tionate either to its quantity or its expense. 

The most imj^ortant point is to cool the gases by draughtage 
into chambers or flues of suflicient area or length, and where this 
can be managed economically little more is required, for the fume 
will quietly subside of itself. In the majority of cases, however, a 
maximum of condensing work must be accomplished in a minimum 
of space, and here the better way is to submit the gases to a sort 
of dry-scrubbing process so as to hasten the deposition of the 
fluorine compounds. How this is to be done must depend upon the 
special circumstances in each particular case, but there should al- 
ways be provided, within a suitable flue, a suflicient number of im- 
pinging or baffling diaphragms, to momentarily arrest the motion 
of the gases and divert them into another direction, it being foi;nd 
that the greatest deposition of silica takes place at these eddying 
points. 

The great bulk of the solid matter being thus early arrested, 
only the residual vapors now remain to be dealt with, and these are 
caused to traverse, in an upward direction, one or more water tow- 
ers or wet scrubbers, simply packed with wood spars, to pass away 
to the chimney. 

The necessary draught is created by an exhaust-fan of special 
construction actuated by the mixer engine. It is best fixed be- 
tween the towers and the chimney, and its power is controlled by 
a damper just sufliciently to secure a slight "pull in " at the mixer 
mouth. The den doors are, of course, made as tight as possible to 
avoid unnecessary dilution of the gases and interference Avith the 
efficiency of the fan. 

Gas dilution means reduced condensing efficiency. Yet there 
have been hosts of failures, due to a total misapprehension of the 
necessities of the case, and to the impracticable construction or 
Avholly insufficient capacity of the condensing plant. In the erec- 
tion of the latter two things have to be constantly borne in mind : 
First, that the evolution of the gas is spasmodic and (especially 
in the case of hot vitriol) extremely violent when the sj^asm is on ; 
and, second, that every chokable jjart of the apparatus must admit 
of the readiest jjossible access. To provide for the first of these, 
the j)lant has to be of ample dimensions, and unless the second be 



Tfie PliospTiates of America. 137 

remembered, the most annoying failures will ensue at most incon- 
venient seasons. 

Where such failures involve stoppages they are fatal to every 
semblance of manufacturing economy, since every unnecessary 
reduction in the day's dissolving tonnage, adds to the cost and 
diminishes the profits. 

The wet scrubbers are j^acked with wood spars for two reasons: 
First, because spars exert no thrust on the tower sides and so save 
the necessity of tie-rods ; and, secondly, because they seem to afford 
a maximum of interstitial, or scrubbing surface, to a minimum of 
solidity. The lire-brick packing sometimes adojjted is less eco- 
nomical, for it not only largely augments the dead- weight of the 
towers, but decreases the ratio of useful surface to solid material 
by its pigeon-hole overlap. 

The spars are made of wedged section, in order to delay the 
choking of the towers, both by affording extra space for the 
deposit of silica, and by facilitating its detachment and convey- 
ance to the tower base by the action of the water. Silica dejjos- 
ited on the sides of square-sectioned spars, clogs the tower by 
reducing the packing spaces, whereas on wedged-section spars, a 
considerable dejiosit can take place without at all affecting the 
packing- mesh. 

Where economy of water is an object one tall tower is j^refer- 
able to two or three shorter ones, but the best arrangement is a 
tower of moderate height, divided into two packed upcasts, with a 
downcast flue between 



138 The Phosphates of America. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

SELECTED METHODS OF PHOSPHATE ANALYSIS AND GENER- 
ALLY USEFUL LABORATORY DETAILS. 

The world's consumption of mineral phosphates and superphos- 
phates from all sources, amounts to several million tons a year. 
The commercial value, alike of these natural and artificial products, 
depends upon their percentage of phosphoric acid, and upon their 
freedom from certain undesirable or injurious constituents as re- 
V e aled by chemical analysis. 

The miner, the manufacturer, and the farmer, are hence equally 
dependent upon the analytical chemist, whose province it is to 
determine how much the two first shall receive, and how much the 
last shall pay for the merchandise. The responsibility is a heavy 
one for the analyst, and he must either justify it or bring a great 
•deal of discredit upon his profession. 

We know that chemistry is the most precise of the sciences. 
It is not only capable of producing exact results, but it can fore- 
tell Avith unerring certainty, even before an ojjeration is commenced, 
what those results will be. Complete concordance in phosphate 
analysis should consequently be " a thing of course," and a dozen 
chemists in as many different parts of the globe have no right to 
differ in the second decimal in their findings on the same sample. 

An average error of no greater importance than say one unit 
of phosphate of lime, worth 20 cents, would entail, when spread over 
a total year's consumption of raw material, a cash difference of 
about $300,000. This difference, of course, constitutes a loss, 
which is sometimes borne by the miners who sell, and sometimes 
by the manufacturers who buy. 

We have seen that in certain cases where superphosphates are 
sold on the basis of their water-soluble phosphoric acid, iron and 
alumina jihosphates as a raw material, have no commercial value. 
Any widely differing results obtained by chemists in their deter- 
minations of these bodies in shipments of mineral phosphates, 
therefore, may cause infinite trouble between miners and manu- 
facturers. 

At the present time there prevails between the contracting 



The PliospTiates of America. 139 

parties, wliat appears i;pon its face to be an equitable arrangement 
in this connection. The market price of the j^hosphate rock is 
fixed at a certain sura j^er unit of phosphate of lime, and it is agreed 
that this rock may contain a certain amount of oxides of iron and 
alumina without affecting its price. This tolerated amount, how- 
ever, must not exceed three per cent, by weight of the mass, and every 
additional per cent, of oxides of iron and alumina is to be compen- 
sated for by a proportionate deduction from the total quantity of 
j)hosphate of lime. 

To justify such a deduction, it is necessary to remember that in 
the initial stage of superphosphate manufacture, a great deal of 
free phosphoric acid is j^roduced, which, in the presence of oxides 
of iron and alumina, enters into combination with them to form 
phosphates in the followdng proportions : 

Oxide of iron to phosphoric anhydride 1 : 0,88 

Oxide of alumina to phosphoric anhydride 1 : 1,37 

Ratio of the equally combined oxides to the acid 1 : 1,13 

It follows from this that every jier cent, of these equally 
combined oxides causes 1.13 per cent, of phosphoric anhydride 
(P2O5) to become insoluble in water. Where " reverted " j^hos- 
phates are valueless, therefore, the European manufacturer is jus- 
tified in declining to pay for what will bring him no return for his 
money . 

A working example of this arrangement may serve to make it 
more clear, and will specially emphasize the necessity for conformity 
of analysis between shipper and consignee. We give an instance 
which actually turned ont as follows : 

A cargo of phosphate rock was shipped from one of our ports 
to Liverpool, in fulfilment of a contract, embodying the above 
arrangement in regard to iron and alumina, and fixing the price 
of the material at 25 cents per unit of phosphate of lime. 

The analysis of the cargo (1000 tons) by the chemists at the 
ports of shipment, and arrival, respectively, showed the following 
variations: 

Shipment. Arrival. 

Phosphate of lime 78.30 77.10 

Oxides of iron and alumina (combined) 2.95 5.01 

These results were contested by the shippers, and the sealed 
samples, taken and reserved at both ports, were handed to four 



140 



The Fliosphates of America. 



reputable chemists. Two of these were in New York and two in 
London, and the following were the results of their work: 



New York chemist No. 1 

New York chemist No. 2 

London chemist No. 1 

London chemist No. 2 


SHIPPING SAMPLE. 


ARRIVAL SAMPLE. 


Phosphate 
of Lime. 


Oxides of 
Iron and 
Alumina. 


Phosphate 
of Lime. 


Oxides of 
Iron and 
Alumina. 


77.80 
77.40 
78.01 

77.25 


3.70 
4.01 
3.95 
4.15 


76.95 
77.30 
76.80 
77.15 


4.86 
4.22 
4.90 
5.12 





These figures were, of course, unsatisfactory in themselves, but 
they made it clear that the greatest error had been made, in the 
first instance, by the shippers' chemist, and it was consequently 
arranged that the cargo should be paid for on the averages of the 
three English chemists, Avhich were : 

Phosphate of hme , 77 per cent. 

Oxides of iron and alumina 5 " 

The original invoices had been made out by the shippers on the 
basis of their own analysis at the price of $19.25 per ton, but the 
final settlement stood thus : 

Oxides of iron and alumina found by analysis 5 per cent. 

" " " allowed by contract 8 " 

" " " to be paid for by sellers . 2 " 

1 : 1,13 : : 2 : 2.26 phosphoric anhydride. 

The factor for converting phosphoric anhydride (P2O5) into 
phosphate of lime is 2.18 — consequently 2.26X2.18 = 4,92 phos- 
phate of lime. 

SETTLEMENT OF INVOICE. 

Phosphate of lime found by analysis 77 per cent. 

Deduct the equivalent of two per cent, iron and 

alumina as above 4.92 " 



Total phosphate xo be paid for at 25 c. per unit. . . 72.08 " 
Value of the phosphate per ton, $18. 

The difference between the amount of the original invoice and 
that of the settlement was therefore 11250. 

How are we to account for these divergencies ? Must they be put 
down to carelessness, incapacity, inexperience, bad faith, or must 



llie Pliospliates of America. 141 

we attribute them, as we have already suggested, to the faulty 
methods of sampling at either or both ends, and to the lack of a 
uniform method by which all chemists should agree to work? The 
first four factors perhaps require to be counted with, but there 
is no doubt in our minds that the two last are the real causes 
of the trouble, and we have long endeavored to bring about an 
agreement that Avould go far in causing them to diminish or dis- 
appear. If chemists were not human, or if they were entirely 
superior to petty prejudices, an entente cordiale might not be very 
difficult. Unfortunately, however, every individual is jsrone to 
regard his own work as irreproachable, and from that very fact to 
look upon any outside suggestions of modification as j^resumptuous 
and unnecessary. In a former chapter we pointed out the advi- 
sability of chemists coming together and arriving at a definite 
understanding, but if all hope of this is to be finally abandoned as 
impracticable, there is still one way open by which to establish 
and enforce a method that shall alone be used in the settlement 
of phosphate affairs. The mine-owners must act in unison and 
fix their own basis for sampling, analyzing and valuation. 

There is no reason why the interests of the manufacturer 
should differ from those of the producer. If jDhosphate of lime in 
the required form be w^orth a certain price per imit, why should a 
door be left oj^en to chicanery when the time comes to pay for it? 
Why should there be any material difference between the shippers' 
and the buyers' samples, if both are faithfully taken according to 
prescribed rules and with a proper regard for the true interests of 
each party to the contract ? 

Whatever method of analysis be chosen, it must be accom- 
panied by com^jlete details of laboratory manipulation. The observ- 
ance of these details should be insisted upon, and must be com- 
municated to all the various chemical and industrial societies in 
order that they may be expeditiously and officially brought before 
analytical chemists all over the Avorld. All contracts between 
miners and manufacturers should contain a special clause specify- 
ing that 

"The phosishate sold under this contract shall be paid for at 

the rate of per unit and per ton of phosjjhate of lime, and 

shall not contain more than a maximum of per cent, of iron 

and alumina, calculated as oxides, on the dry basis. Every unit of 
these oxides, singly or combined, in excess of the maximum, shall 
be deemed to neutralize two units of the phosphate of lime, and 



142 The rhos])Jiates of America, 

such excess shall therefore be deducted from the total phosjjhate 
of lime found in the results of chemical analysis. 

"This chemical analysis shall be made in duplicate, from the 
same sample, by two chemists, one representing the buyer and the 
other the seller, and it shall be performed in strict accordance with 
the method, in all its details, hereunder set forth. If the two 
analyses only exhibit on their face a maximum difference equalling 
one per cent, of phosphate of lime, such difference shall be adjusted 
by taking the mean of the two results ; but in case the difference 
should exceed this maximum, a third analysis shall be made by 
another chemist, to be mutually agreed uj^on by the contracting 
parties, and the settlement shall then and there take place upon 
the basis of an average between the results of this third analysis 
and those of that one of the other two first chemists which was 
nearest to its figures." 

EXAMPLE. 

Phosphate of Oxides of Iron and 

Lime. Alumina. 

Chemist No. 1 finds 78.20 2.85 

" 2 " 76.30 2.70 

" 3 " 77.40 3.00 

Average of Nos. 1 and 3 77.80 2.92 

To strengthen these preliminary suggestions we will now set 
forth what we regard as the best and the most practical methods 
of sampling and analysis. These methods are being constantly 
employed in our own work, and while we claim no originality for 
them, they have stood the test of our experience in many fields 
and on every variety of material with perfect satisfaction. 

SAMPLING. 

As this work is generally undertaken rather by practical working- 
men than by analytical chemists, it is deemed advisable to point out, 
in the plainest jjossible way, the easiest, most effective and accurate 
method of conducting it. Nor need we dwell upon the importance 
of this operation and the necessity for its being carefully super- 
vised by all capable managers, for we have already shown that enor- 
mous losses have continually been made and must ever surely result 
from ignoring or disregarding details. 

When the phosphates are sampled upon the mine for the con- 
trol of the daily work, it is necessary to take them from the piles. 
The latter are therefore very carefully gone over, and averages are 



The Phosphates of America. 14^ 

selected from their every part and placed aside until, in the opinion 
of the sampler, a sufficient quantity has been amassed to make 
it representative. The big lumps are then all broken up Avith a 
hammer, and the entire material is spread out upon the surface of 
a level floor, well mixed up, and passed through a crusher to 
reduce all the lumps to a small uniform size. It is then again 
spread upon the floor, shovelled uj) in a circular direction into a 
cone-like heap and then once more spread out flat. About a 
fourth part is next separated from the whole by taking out with a 
spade two strips crossed at right angles, and adding a small por- 
tion from each remaining quadrant. This fourth is made to go 
through the same process of spreading, heaping and dividing into 
fourths until the last oj^eration leaves no more than about five 
pounds, which, after thorough mixing on a table, is ground to an 
impalpably fine powder, emptied into wide-mouthed bottles, well 
corked, securely sealed and labelled. 

When the samj^ling takes jjlace either at the port of shipment 
or discharge, it must not be lost sight of that the result is to form 
the basis of the price per ton which the miner is to realize for 
his cargo. It has, therefore, to be performed in the presence 
of trusted and reliable representatives of both seller and buyer. 
If the loading and unloading is done by means of buckets, every 
twentieth bucket of the whole cargo is set aside. The entire 
sample is then passed through a stone-crusher in order to reduce 
all the lumps to a very small size, and is then spread out upon 
a level floor and tossed up into a heap and treated in the same 
general way as described for the smaller sample at the mines. 
When it has been reduced, however, in the present case, to about 
five tons, it is taken to a mill, ground to a fineness of 80 mesh, and 
filled into bags of 200 pounds capacity, which are securely tied 
and placed in a row. Each one of these fifty sacks is then sampled 
at both ends by means of a sharp-pointed augur, 18 inches long 
and \^ inches diameter, which is first plunged into the top and 
then into the bottom for its entire length, being emptied of its con- 
tents into a large tin plate by giving it a tap on the side after each 
operation. When all the sacks have been sampled in this way, 
the powder is thoroughly mixed by passing it through a sieve 
twice or even three times, and is then divided into three equal parts, 
each of which is put in a wide-mouthed glass bottle and sealed 
with the seal of both parties to the contract. One of these sam- 
ples is handed over to some public officer, or other jDarty mutually 



144 T]ie Phosphates of America, 

agreed upon for safe-keeping in case of dispute ; the other two are 
taken, one by each of the contracting parties, for the purposes of 
analysis. 

ANALYSIS OF MINERAL PHOSPHATES APATITE, PHOSPHORITE, 

COPROLITE, ETC. 

The sample must bear the date upon which it was drawn, and 
must in every case be representative of the bulk. It must be clearly 
labelled with all particulars as to its origin and destination, includ- 
ing the name of the vessel or the number of the railroad car. When 
drawn as a working sample of the mine it must bear the mention 

*■'■ avp.rage sample from Mine No drawn by from 

piles No representing tons." 

All these details are entered in the laboratory journal, and this 
having been done, the entire sample to be analyzed is first made to 
pass through a screen of 80 mesh by the analyst. The following 
determinations are then pi'oceeded with : 

Moistui'e. 

Water of combination and organic matter. 

Carbonic anhydride (CO 3). 

Insoluble siliceous matters. 

Phosphoric anhydride (PgOg). 

Sulphuric anhydride (SO 3). 

Fluorine (Fl). 

Lime (CaO). 

Magnesia (MgO). . 

Iron and alumina as oxides (combined). 

Moisture. 

Two grammes of the substance are very carefully weighed in 
accurately tared and well-ground watch-glasses. The latter are 
then adjusted with the clip so as to leave a sufficient opening 
for the passage of steam, and are placed in the gas-oven at 110° 
C. At the end of three hours the glasses are taken out, closed 
tightly, jjlaced in the desiccator until quite cold, and then brought 
upon the scale. 

The difference between the present and the original weight 
-^ 2 = moisture in one gramme of the material. 

'Water of Combination and Organic Matter. 
The residue from the moisture determination is carefully brushed 
into an accurately-tared platinum crucible. The crucible is jDlaced 



Tiie Phosphates of America. 145 

over a small Bunsen flame for ten minutes, and is then brought to a 
white heat by means of the blast. After being kept at this high 
temperature for five minutes the flame is removed, the crucible 
is covered ; placed in the desiccator ; and allowed to become 
quite cold. It is then weighed, and the difference between the 
present weight and that of the residue from the moisture deter- 
mination ^ 2 represents the " loss on ignition " in one gramme of the 

material. 

The total of this loss on ignition includes water of combination, 
organic matter, and carbonic anhydride, and as the latter is to 
be determined separately, its weight when found must be deducted 
from this total. 

Carbonic Anhydride (COg). 

This is one of the most essential of the determinations, and 
should be made in every sample destined for factory use. There 
are numerous excellent methods of performing it, but the two 
most commonly used in our laboratory are those of Scheibler and 
Schrotter. The first-named is based upon the principle that the 
quantity of carbonic anhydride contained in pure chalk can be used 
as a measure of the quantity of that salt itself. Instead of estimat- 
ing the carbonic-acid gas by weight, therefore, this method allows 
of its estimation by volume, and when skilfully handled it yields 
very rapid and very accurate results. The second is a far simpler, 
and in our experience equally expeditious, method, and our students 
consequently take more readily to it than to the other. It only re- 
quires ordinary care in its manipulation to give perfect satisfac-. 

tion. 

A mere glance at the figure will suffice to show that the appa- 
ratus is made of blown glass, and that its principle depends upon 
the loss of weight which occurs in a carbonate when its carbonic- 
acid gas is expelled. 

Two grammes of the original substance are accurately weighed 
and introduced into A. The tube B is now filled with fifty per 
cent, hydrochloric acid and the tube C about a quarter filled with 
concentrated sulphuric acid. All the stop-cocks have meantime 
been kept closed, and the apparatus is now brought upon the scale 
and very accurately weighed. The Aveight being noted in the 
agenda it is withdrawn from the scale, the stop-cock on tube B is 
gradually opened and the hydrochloric acid thus allowed to come 
into contact with the phosphate. When all the acid is in, the tap 



146 



The Phosphates of America. 



is closed and the a2:>paratus is allowed to stand in a warm place 
(say at 80° C) for two hours with occasional agitation. The 
carbonic-acid gas passes off through C, the sulphuric acid, however, 
preventing the escape of any moisture that might otherwise ac- 
company it. At the end of two hours B is oj^ened, and the air 




schrotter's apparatus for the estimation of carbonic-acid gas. 



is drawn through the apjDaratus by suction applied to a piece of 
thin India-rubber tubing connected with D in order to sweep out 
all traces of the CO2. B is then closed and the apparatus is 
allowed to become quite cold, when it is brought back to the scale 
and weighed. The difference between the present and the first 
weight -^ 2 represents the CO2 in one gramme of the normal 
sample. 



The FhospJuUes of America, 147 



EXAMPLE. 



Weight of the carefully dried "Schrotter" charged with "1 

Two grammes Phosphate in A I 

Diluted HCl in B }- 33.672 

Concentrated H2SO4 in C j 

Weight of the carefully dried apparatvis at the end of two 



qq KQK 

hours, after the prescribed manipulation J ' 

Loss in weight by 2 grammes phosphate 0.087 • 

Equal 0.0435 in 1 gramme, or 4.35 per cent. 

Insoluble Siliceous Matters. 

Five grammes of the original sample in its normal state are accu- 
rately weighed out and placed in a porcelain dish with about 30 c.c. 
of aqua regia. The dish is placed upon a sand or air bath, cov- 
ered with an inverted funnel, gradually heated, and evaporated to 
dryness ; care being taken to avoid any spurting and consequent 
loss. As soon as it is dry, the residue is moistened with pure con- 
centrated hydrochloric acid, and again evaporated to complete dry- 
ness, after which the heat of the bath is increased to 125° C. and so 
maintained for about ten minutes. When it has become cool the 
silica will all be insoluble, and the residue is ti'eated with 50 c.c. 
of concentrated hydrochloric acid and allowed to remain in this 
contact for fifteen minutes. The acid is then diluted, filtered 
through an ashless filter, and the porcelain dish and the filter care- 
fully washed with hot water until the filtrate measures 250 c.c. 
The residue on the filter, which should be quite white, is now dried 
in the oven, calcined and weighed. The weight -=- 5 = insoluble 
siliceous matter in 1 gramme of the material. 

Sidphitric Anhydride (SO 3). 

Twenty -five c.c. of the filtrate from the siliceous matter, repre- 
senting 0.50 gramme of the phosphate, are placed in a beaker, 
boiled, and treated while boiling with 5 c.c. of a saturated solution 
of barium chloride. The hot liquid is brought upon a small ash- 
less filter ; the beaker and the filter are well washed with boiling 
water until the last washings show no trace of chlorides ; and the 
filter is then dried, calcined and weighed. The Aveight X .3429 
X 2 = sulphuric anhydride (SO3) in 1 gramme of the material. 

N.B. — The words "ashless filter" are used on this, and on all 
subsequent occasions, only in a comparative sense, and are meant 
to indicate the round cut filters, washed in hydrochloric and 



148 Tlic riiospliatea of America. 

hydrofluoric acids manufactured by Messrs. Schleicher & Schuell. 
These filter rapidly, retain the finest precipitates, and leave an ash 
which — in the No. 590, of 9 cubic centimetres diameter, for example 
— only amounts to 0.00008 grarrnme. 

Phosphoric Anhydride (PgOg). 

Twenty-five c.c. of the filtrate from the siliceous matter, repre- 
senting 0.50 gramme of the phosphate, are placed in a beaker with 10 
grammes ammonium nitrate. The solution is heated over a Bun- 
sen or other smokeless flame, and when quite warm is treated with 
150 c.c. of molybdic solution and M^ell stirred. After digesting for 
one hour at 70° C, it is filtered and washed with water three or 
four times. The beaker in which the preci2)itation was made is now 
placed beneath the funnel ; a small hole is made in the bottom of 
the filter-paper with the point of the stirring-rod, and the precipi- 
tate is washed from the filter into the beaker by means of a hot 
mixture of water and ammonia (5 : 1). If this washing is skil- 
fully performed, the amount of liquid used will not exceed 75 c.c. 
in order to remove all traces of the ammonium-j^hospho-molyb- 
date. 

The filtrate having been nearly neutralized by the careful addi- 
tion of hydrochloric acid until the yellow color only disappears 
with difiiculty, is allowed to cool, and there are then added to it 
very slowly, in fact, drop by drop, 20 c.c. of magnesia mixture, stir- 
ring with a glass rod all the time. Finally, there are poured in 
about 50 c.c. of strong ammonia, the mixture is again stirred, and 
then allowed to stand for four hours. The precipitate is collected 
on an ashless filter, and the beaker is very thoroughly washed 
with dilute ammonia by means of a rubber tip on the glass rod. 
When all the liquid has passed through the filter, the latter is 
washed carefully twice, by blowing the dilute ammonia down its 
sides in a fine stream, and is then placed in the drying-oven. 
When quite dry, it is removed from the funnel, folded care- 
fully in order to prevent loss of its contents, placed in a tared 
porcelain crucible, and ignited, at first very gently, but finally over 
the most intense obtainable flame, for ten minutes, in order that 
the residue may become white. The crucible is now covered, 
transferred with the tongs to the desiccator, allowed to become 
quite cold, and weighed. The weight of this magnesium pyro- 
phosphate (MggPaO;) X .6396 X 2 = phosphoric anhydride (PgOj) 
in 1 gramme of the material. 



TJie Pliosjjhates of America. 149' 

Fluorine (Fl). 

This element may first of all be tested for, qualitatively, in order 
to save much unnecessary trouble. 

Two or three grammes areiDlacedin a platinum dish with about 
2 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid. The dish is covered with a 
watch-glass thinly coated with wax, through which the operator 
may trace some mark with a fine needle-point Heat is then 
gently applied, and, at the end of, say, ten minutes the watch- 
glass is removed, and the wax upon it is washed off. The etching 
of the characters traced on the glass proves the presence of fluor- 
ine, and the analysis may be proceeded with as follows : 

Five grammes of the finely-ground phosphate are fused in a 
platinum dish, Avith 15 grammes of the mixed carbonates of sodium 
and potassium, and 2 grammes of very fine sand. After fusing very 
thoroughly with a strong heat for a quarter of an hour, the dish is 
removed from the fire, cooled down, and its contents dissolved in 
hot water and treated with ammonium carbonate in excess, in order 
to remove the last trace of soluble silica. The liquid is now 
filtered and washed with great care ; the filtrate is nearly neutral- 
ized with hydrochloric acid and then treated with an excess of 
calcium chloride solution (CaClg). 

The precipitate, consisting of phosphate, fluoride and some 
carbonate of lime, is washed several times by decantation with 
boiling water, collected on an ashless filter, dried and calcined. 
After being allowed to cool, the residue is treated with acetic acid 
and evaporated to dryness on the water-bath in order to trans- 
form the carbonate of lime into acetate of lime. The acetate 
is next well washed out with boiling water several times, and 
the final residue is brought on an ashless filter, dried, calcined 
and weighed. This time, the weight represents only the phosphate 
and fluoride of lime contained in the five grammes of the original 
sample. 

After taking due note of this weight, the residue is returned to 
the platinum dish, 5 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid are added 
to it, heat is applied, and the fluorine is all driven off. When 
no more fumes are evolved, the source of heat is removed, the resi- 
due in the dish is treated with 100 c.c. alcohol, filtered and washed 
with alcohol up to 200 c.c. 

The alcoholic filtrate contains the phosphoric acid, and this is 
precipitated as ammonio-magnesium phosphate. The 2Drecij)itate 



150 The Phosphates of America. 

is Avasbed, dried, calcined and weighed as MgaP207, eveiy j^art 
of which X .1396 = phosjihate of lime (CaaP-P^). 

We now refer to our note-book to find the weight of the com- 
bined phosphate and fluoride of lime contained in the five grammes of 
the original sample asdetermined after the acetic-acid treatment,and 
by means of this weight we now make the following calculation ; 

EXAMPLE (TAKEN AT RANDOM FROM OUR AGENDA). 

Weight of the residue of combined phosphate and fluoride 

of lime in 5 grammes of the sample 3.900 

Weight of the phosphate of lime calculated from MggPgO^ . 3.775 



Fluoride of lime, by difference in 5 grammes 0.125 

Therefore 5 : .125 : :100 : •» = 2.50 per cent, fluoride of lime, 
which X .4897 = 1.22 per cent, fluorine. 

Oxides of Iron and Alumina. 

This highly-imjDortant determination is the object of much con- 
troversy, and may be roughly said to be the pivot upon which 
revolves very nearly every difference in the phosphate analyses of 
various chemists. A large number of schemes have been devised 
and experimented with, but only very few of them have j^roved 
worthy of general application. 

The chief points required of a method for practical work are : 
that it should be accurate, that it should be easy and rapid, and 
finally, that it should be economical. All these we believe to be 
embodied in the following plan, which, Avhen carried out with care 
and exactly as we shall describe it, produces constant and strictly 
concordant results. When left to our own choice we have always 
preferred it to any other for our own work, and many of our j^upils 
and former assistants who have left us and are now employed 
either at phosphate mines or at fertilizer works throughout the 
country, continue to exactly accord in results with our laboratory. 
We consider this to be a great jjoint in its favor, and it is in fact 
the one which mainly prompts us to so strongly recommend its 
general adojDtion. 

Fifty c.c. of the filtrate from the siliceous matter, equalling one 
gramme of the phosjjhate, are placed in a beaker and made alkaline 
with ammonia. 

The resulting precipitate is redissolved by the addition of just 
sufiicient hydrochloric acid, and the liquid is then again made 
alkaline with ammonia in very slight excess. Fifty c.c. of concen- 
trated and pure acetic acid are now added ; the mixture is stirred, 



Tlie Phosphates of America. 



151 



and allowed to stand in a cool place until perfectly cold. It is then 
tiltei-ed on an ashless filter and the beaker and residue are carefully 
washed twice with boiling water. The flask containing the filtrate 
is then removed from beneath the funnel and replaced by the 
beaker in which the first precipitation was made. The substance 
on the filter is now carefully dissolved in a little hot, fifty-per-cent. 
solution of hydrochloric acid, and the filter is washed twice with 
hot water. The filtrate in the beaker is next made alkaline with 
ammonia in slight excess ; then made strongly acid with pure con- 
centrated acetic acid ; well stirred up, and again allowed to stand 
until absolutely cold. The flask containing the first filtrate is now 
replaced under the funnel, the liquid in the beaker is filtered 
into it, the filter is washed twice with cold water containing a 
little acetic acid, and then three times with boiling distilled water. 
The funnel containing the filter is now placed in the oven and com- 
completely dried, after which the filter and its contents are cal- 
cined, and weighed as 2^hosphates of iron and alumina in one 
f/ramme of the material. For all the general purposes of the 
factory, or for the control of daily work at the mines, it is 
only necessary to divide the figure thus found by 2, and to state 
the result roughly as "oxides of iron and alumina (combined)." 
As we have given our reasons for this proceeding in an earlier part 
of this chapter, it is not necessary to repeat them, and we will con- 
tent ourselves with a mere example. 

The weight of the combined phosphates in one gramme was .058 ; 
then .058 -4- 2 = .029 = 2.90 per cent, oxides' of iron and alumina 
When reporting upon a sample for commercial purposes 
that is to say, when determining its value to the manufacturer 
of water-soluble superphosphates, it is sometimes necessary to 
carry this analysis a little further. In such cases, after carefully 
noting the accurate weight of the combined phosphates, they are 
dissolved in boiling hydrochloric acid. The solution is filtered 
into a 100-c.c. flask and washed up to the mark with boiling water. 
No residue should remain on the filter save perhaps a speck or two 
of carbon resulting from the recent incineration. In one half of 
the filtrate, the phosphoric anhydride is determined by the molyb- 
date method already described. The resulting MgsPgO^ X .6396 X 2 
equals the PA i" o"e gramme of the combined phosphates. 

The remaining half of the filtrate is boiled with a small piece 
of zinc in a flask fitted with a Bunsen valve. When the iron is com- 
pletely reduced and gives no trace of pink coloration with pot as- 



152 Tlte FhospJiates of America. 

sium sulpliocyanate, the liquid is cooled, about one gramme of mag- 
nesium sulphate is dissolved in it, and it is then titrated Avith ^-^ 
N. permanganate solution, every c.c. of which = .00080 ferric oxide. 
The number of c.c. used X 2 will represent the amount of iron 
oxide contained in one gramme of the above phosphates. Two out 
of the three constituents being thus accurately known, the third, 
which is the alumina, can easily be determined by difference, as 
for example : 

"Weight of the combined phosphates of iron and alumina. . .058 

Phosphoric anhydride determined in the above 031 

Iron oxide (FegOg) " " „ 010 

.041 

Oxide of alumina (by difference) 017 

In reporting upon the sample we should therefore state the 
presence of 

Oxide of iron , 1.00 per cent. 

Oxide of alumina 1.70 " 

Weight of these oxides combined 2.70 " 

instead of the 2.90 per cent, which were obtained by merely divid- 
ing the combined phosphates by 2. 

The only other method of determining the jDercentage of iron 
and alumina which has been used in our laboratory with satis- 
factory results, was recently adopted at the request of clients, and 
is generally known as the Glaser method, from its having been 
first suggested and described by a German chemist of that name 
(in Ztschr. Angeio. Chem., 89, 636). The way in which w^e carry 
it out, differs somewhat from the first description by its author, 
and is as follows : 

Two and a half grammes of the phosphate are dissolved in 10 c.c. 
hydrochloric acid ; evaporated to dryness ; taken up again with 
hydrochloric acid, raised to boiling, and washed out into a 250-c.c. 
flask with as little water as possible. Ten c.c. concentrated sulphuric 
acid are now added, and the solution is allowed to stand for five min- 
utes, with frequent shaking. After adding some ninety-five per cent, 
alcohol, the mixture is cooled, made up to the mark with alcohol, 
well shaken, and when the contraction in volumehas taken place, is 
again made up to 250 c.c. and mixed. After standing one hour it is 
filtered, and 200 c.c. (= 2 grammes phosphate) are taken and gently 



The Pliosphates of America. 153 

evaporated to a small bulk. When organic matter is present, it is 
desirable to evaporate to pastiness, that the acid may partially de- 
compose it. The solution is now washed into a beaker with about 
50 to 100 c.c. water ; boiled for a short time with bromine or other 
oxidizing agent, as suggested by II. H. B. Shepherd (in Chem. 
JVetos, 63, 251) ; and, after adding ammonia, it is again boiled for 
about half an hour. It is then cooled, and, after the addition of 
a little more ammonia, is filtered ; washed with a hot solution of 
ammonium chloride to prevent the precipitate from passing through 
the filter ; ignited, and weighed. The phosphoric acid is determined 
by dissolving the ignited precipitate, exactly as we have described 
in the former method, and the oxides of iron and alumina are 
obtained by difference. If magnesia is present, the phosphates of 
iron and alumina obtained as above mitst be freed from this im- 
purity by washing the precipitate off the filter, and boiling Avith 
water and a little nitrate of ammonium. 

As we have already stated, our own preferences are in favor of 
the first method, and this, not only because we believe it to beiJer- 
fectly exact and reliable, when in the hands of a skilful operator, 
but because it is much more rapid and much less costly. We, 
however, have no positive objections to the Glaser scheme, and 
when carried out on the above lines should have every confidence 
in the accuracy of its results. 

Lime (CaO). 

The total filtrates from the iron and alumina determination first 
described are mixed by shaking the flask, and are then concen- 
trated by boiling down to about 100 c.c. At this point there are 
added to the liquid about 20 c.c. of a saturated solution of am- 
monium oxalate, and the mixture, after stirring, is withdrawn 
from the fire, covered with a watch-glass and allowed to stand 
for six hours. At the end of this time the suj^ernatant fluid is 
filtered through an ashless filter ; the residue is washed three times 
by decantation with boiling water, and then brought upon the 
filter, and the beaker and filter are thoroughly Avashed at least 
three times more. The filter is then dried, taken from the funnel 
with the greatest care, placed in a tared platinum crucible, and 
ignited at a low red heat for ten minutes. At the end of this 
time it is brought to the highest possible temperature by the 
blast, kept there for five minutes, covered, and then rapidly re- 
moved to the desiccator. When quite cold it is weighed in the 



154 Tlie Pliospliates of America. 

covered crucible. The net Aveight = CaO in one gramme of the 
material. 

It is customary in our laboratory to ignite and weigh this residue 
three times, or until the two last weights are identical. 

Magnesia (MgO). 

The filtrates and all the washings from the lime determination, 
as above detailed, are well shaken together, and concentrated by 
boiling to about 100 c.c. 

After allowing the liquid to become quite cold, it is poured into 
a beaker, the flask carefully rinsed out into the same with distilled 
water, and the liquid made very strongly alkaline with ammonia. 

After well stirring, the mixture is covered with a watch-glass 
and allowed to stand over night. The precipitate of ammonio- 
magnesium-phosphate is then carefully filtered through an ashless 
filter, the beaker thoroughly washed out with dilute ammonia by 
means of a rubber-tipped rod, and the washings brought on the 
filter. The latter is then finally washed twice with the ammonia 
water, placed in the drying-oven, calcined in a tared porcelain 
cru ible, at first at a very low, then at the highest obtainable heat, 
and weighed as Mg2P207. The weight X -360 = MgO in one 
gramme of the material. 

If all the foregoing determinations have been performed with 
the required care, the quantities found should add up to a total very 
closely approximating 100. Assuming that this is the case, we 
suggest that a reliable opinion may at once be formed for the 
manufacturer, as to the industrial value of any mineral phosphate, 
by combining the various isolated bodies as follows : 

The magnesia is multiplied by 2.10. Result —- carbonate of magnesia. 

The carbonic anhydride left over by 

the magnesia is multiplied by.. 2.37 " = carbonate of lime. 

The fluorine is multiplied by 2.05 " = fluoride of lime. 

The sulphuric acid is multiplied by 0.75 " = iron pyrites. 

Tlie lime remaining after satisfying 
the carbonic anliydride and 
fluorine is multiplied by 1.84 "J = phosphate of lime. 

The pliosphoric acid, if any, remain- 
ing after this satisfaction of 

lime is multiplied by 2.00 " = phosphate of iron and 

alumina. 

If all the phosphoric acid be used up by the lime available 
under this scheme, the iron and alumina may be regarded as having 






The Pliosplmtes of America. 155 

existed in the form of silicates or clay, and, as we have pointed 
out in the chapter on Florida phosphates, our own exi^eriments 
have very conclusively proved that in a majority of cases, they 
really do so exist. They would therefore be to a great extent 
unacted upon by the dilute chamber acid, used in the manufacture 
either of superphosphates or phosphoric acid. 



ANALYSIS OF SUPERPHOSPHATES. 

The sample should be well intermixed and properly prepared 
and passed through a sieve having circular perforations one-twenty- 
fifth of an inch in diameter, so that separate portions shall accurately 
represent the substance under examination, without loss or gain of 

moisture. 

Moisture. 

Two grammes are accurately weighed into the watch-glasses 
and heated for five hours at 100° in a steam-bath. 

^Vater-soluble Pliosphoric Anhydride. 

Five grammes are weighed out into a small beaker ; washed by 
decantation four or five times with not more than from 20 to 25 c.c. 
of water, and then rubbed up in the beaker with a rubber-tijjped 
rod to a homogeneous paste, and washed four or five times by 
decantation with from 20 to 25 cc. of water each time. These 
washings are all run through a 9-c.c. — No. 589 Schleicher and 
Schiiell — filter into a 500-c.c. flask. The residue is finally trans- 
ferred to the filter, and washed with water until the flask is filled 
up to the mark. The flask is now shaken, and 50 c.c. of the clear 
liquor, equal to ^ gramme of superphosphate, are transferred to 
a beaker, and treated with 150 c.c. of molybdic solution. The 
mixture is digested at 80° C. for one hour, filtered and washed with 
water. After testing the filtrate for P3O5 by renewed digestion 
and addition of more molybdic solution, the precipitate is dissolved 
on the filter with ammonia and hot Avater (as described in the anal- 
ysis of raw phosphate) and washed into a beaker to a bulk of not 
more than 100 c.c. It is nearly neutralized with hydrochloric acid, 
cooled, and magnesia mixture is added slowly from a burette (one 
drop per second), with vigorous stirring. After fifteen minutes 
30 c.c. of ammonia solution of density .95 are added, and the whole 
is allowed to stand for two hours. It is then filtered on an ash- 



156- The Phosphates of America. 

Ies8 filter, washed as in the case of raw phosphates, dried, calcined 
in a jjorcelain crucible and weighed as MggPgOj. The weight of 
the residue X .0396 X 2 = the water-soluble phos2)h()ric anhydride. 
in one gramme of the superphosphate. 

Citrate-insoluble Phosphoric Anhydride. 

The residue from the treatment with water is washed into a 
200-c.c. flask, with 100 c.c. of strictly neutral ammonium citrate 
solution of density 1.09. The flask is securely corked and placed 
in a water-bath, the water of which stands at 65° C. (The water- 
bath should be of such a size that the introduction of the cold 
flask may not cause a reduction of the temperature of the bath of 
more than 2° C.) 

The temperature of 65° C. is maintained for thirty minutes, with 
vigorous shaking of the flask every five minutes. The warm solu- 
tion in the flask is then filtered quickly and washed with water of 
ordinary temperature. The filter is transferred, with its contents,, 
to a capsule, and ignited until the organic matter is destroyed. It 
is then treated with 10 to 15 c.c. of concentrated hydrochloric acid ; 
digested over a low flame until the phosphate is dissolved ; diluted 
to 200 c,c. mixed, and passed through a dry filter. One hundred 
c.c. of it are nearly neutralized with ammonia ; 10 grammes of 
ammonium nitrate are added ; the liquid is made quite warm and 
there are then added to it 150 c.c. molybdic solution. The process 
is completed exactly the same way as with raw phosphates. 

The weight of the MgoPgO^ X .6396 X 2 -f- 5 equals the citrate- 
insoluble phosphoric anhydride in one gramme of the substance. 

Total Phosphoric Anhydride. 

Two grammes of the superphosphate are weighed with great 
accuracy and treated in a porcelain capsule with 30 c.c. concen- 
trated hydrochloric acid. Heat is applied and thei-e is added cau- 
tiously, and in small quantities at a time, about .5 gramme of 
finely-pulverized potassium chlorate. 

The mixture is gently boiled until all phosphates are dissolved 
and all organic matter destroyed, and is then diluted to 200 c.c, 
mixed and passed through a dry filter. Fifty c.c. of filtrate — 
equal to half a gramme of the superphosphate — are then taken and 
neutralized with ammonia, and about 15 grammes of dry am- 
monium nitrate are added. The solution is now made warm ; 150 
c.c. molybdic solution are added, and thenceforward the process, 
is conducted exactly as in the case of raw phosphates. 



Tlie Phosphates of America. 157 

The weight of the Mg^PaO; X .0396 X 2 equals the total phos- 
phoric anhydride in one gramme of the substance. 

The three following determinations have now been made: 

1. The P2O5 soluble in water. 

2. The P2O5 insoluble in ammonium citrate. 

3. The total P2O5 contained in the substance. 

The figures obtained in the first two cases, added together and 
deducted from the last, will therefore show the amount of citi'ate- 
soluble phosphoric acid in one gramme of the substance ; as for 
example : 

Total PgOg in one gramme 0.160 gramme 

PgOj soluble in water 0.140 

PgOg iasoluble in water and ammonium citrate . . 004— .144 " 

PgOg soluble in ammonium citrate 016 ' 

and the manner in which we should state the result of such an 
.analysis as this in our reports would be as follows : 

Moisture ? 

Water-soluble phosphoric anhydride (P2O5) 14.00 

Citrate-soluble or assimilable phosphoric anhydride (PgOg). 1.60 

Insoluble phosphoric anhydride (PoOg) 0.40 

Equal to 34 per cent, of bone phosphate made soluble. 



THE VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATION OF PHOS- 
PHORIC ACID. 

While we have long discarded the use, in our commercial labor- 
atory, of all volumetric processes of determining phosphoric acid 
for commercial purposes, we nevertheless have always found the one 
that we shall now describe of considerable value in the factory. 
With a little practice it is possible to observe the end reaction w^th 
great accuracy, and provided not more than one per cent, of com- 
bined iron and alumina is present, the results are tolerably reli- 
able. 

The formulae for preparing the standard solutions required are 
given on another page, and the principle on which the method is 
based is the fact, that phosphoric anhydride and uranic oxide com- 
bine together to form a compound insoluble in acetic acid. 

P2O, + 2 Ur^O^ = Ur.P^O,! 

142 4- 576 = 718. 



158 The Pliospliates of America. 

It follows, therefore, that if a solution of phosphoric anhydride 
in acetic acid, be treated Avith a solution of urauic acetate, the PoOg. 
is precipitated, and it has been found that the slightest excess of 
uranic acetate can be detected in the mixture, by bringing a drop 
of it into contact with a drop of freshly-prepared solution of potas- 
siuni-ferrocyanide, and noting the reddish-brown color produced. 
The first step being to establish the accuracy of the solutions, 50 
c.c. of the standard solution of sodic phosphate are run into a 
small beaker; made akaline Avith ammonia; and then distinctly acid 
with acetic acid. Five c.c. of the sodic-acetate solution are now 
run into the mixture with a pipette ; the beaker is brought over 
the dame of a Bunsen burner and the contents heated to about 70° 
C. When this point is attained the uranic-acetate solution is run 
in very cautiously, drop by drop, from a burette, until a drop of 
the mixture in the beaker taken out and placed in contact with a 
drop of the ferrocyanide solution, on a white porcelain slab or plate, 
gives a slight, but yet distinct, reddish-brown color. 

When the necessary point has been attained — which generally 
requires two or three trials — the uranic solution is so arranged by 
dilution, or calculation, as to make 1 c.c. of it correspond to ex- 
actly 1 c.c. of the standard sodic-j^hosjjhate solution ; in other 
words, to .002 PgOg. 

The accurate standardization being completed, the sample of 
mineral phosphate to be examined is now weighed out. One gramme 
is dissolved in nitric or hydrochloric acid in the usual Avay, and 
with the usual precautions is filtered and washed to about 200 c.c. 
Fifty c.c. (equal to .250 gramme phosphate) are now placed in a 
beaker, made alkaline with ammonia, then strongly acid with acetic 
acid and treated with 5 c.c. of sodium-acetate solution. The mixt- 
ure is then heated to V0° C, and at this temperature the uranium 
solution is run in, drop by drop, until the color reaction on the 
white plate is plainly visible. A second titration is made on an- 
other 50 c.c. of the solution of phosphate, and if the results are the 
same the operation is ended. Every c.c. of the uranic-acetate 
solution used equals .002 gramme P2O5 in .250 gramme of the 
material. 

As will have been gathered from our opening remarks, the re- 
sults of this process, as we describe it, are seriously vitiated by 
tlie presence of more than one per cent, of iron and alumina. 
When, however, these two bodies are present in any considerable 
amount there is a way out of the difficulty afforded by the fact 



The FJiospJiates of America. 159 

that they will remain precipitated in the acetic-acid solution as 
phosphates, especially in the presence of sodic acetate. AVhen 
the liquid has become quite cold, therefore, they can he filtered 
off, washed, redissolved in hydrochloric acid, treated again with 
ammonia and acetic acid, made cold, filtered, washed, dried, cal- 
cined and weighed as iron and alumina phosphates. 

If the filtrates from these operations be mixed together and 
heated to 70° C, they may be titrated with uranic solution as usual, 
and the quantity of PgOg found by titration, added to half the 
weight of the phosphates of iron and alumina, will give, very 
approximately, the total amount of j^hosjihoric anhydi'ide in the 
original substance. 



ANALYSIS OF PYRITES FOR SULPHURIC-ACID 
MANUFACTURE. 

The sample is drawn from bulk in much the same manner as 
that described for the sampling of phosphates, and is ground ta 
the fineness of 100 rnesh, care being taken that every particle 
passes through the screen. The requisite quantity, say eight 
ounces, is now put into a wide-mouthed bottle provided with a 
tight-fitting rubber stopper, and the analysis is proceeded with. 

The necessary determinations in the pyrites most ordinarily 
used in this country for acid manufacture are : 

Moisture. 

Siliceous matters. 

Sulphur. 

Iron. 

Copper. 

Moisture. 

One gramme of the sample is weighed between two tightly- 
ground watch-glasses of which the tare, including the clip, is 
accurately known. The necessary space to allow for evaporation 
having been adjusted, the glasses containing the powder are placed 
in the gas-oven and kept at 110° C. until no further loss of weight 
is observed. Three weighings should be made at intervals of 
about one hour. The difference between the original, and the final 



160 Tlie Phosphates of America. 

weight of the pyrites, and watch-glasses, represents the moisture in 
the sample. 

/Siliceous Matter and Silicates. 

One gramme of the original sample is treated with about 20 
<5.c. of a mixture of three vols, nitric acid (specific gravity 1.4) 
and one vol. strong hydrochloric acid, both ascertained to be 
absolutely free from sulphuric acid. All sjiurting is carefully 
avoided and heat is gently ap]3lied, and the mixture evaporated 
to dryness in a water-bath ; 5 c.c. of hydrochloric acid are 
now added, and once more evaporated (no nitrous fumes ought 
to escape now), and finally the dried residue is treated with a 
little concentrated hydrochloric acid and 100 c.c. of hot water 
and filtered through a small filter and washed with hot water. 
The insoluble residue on the filter is dried, ignited and weighed. 
It may contain besides silicic acid and silicates some sulphates 
of barium, lead and calcium, but these may be disregarded. 

Sulphur. 

The filtrate and washings from the last determination, are 
slightly saturated with ammonia, filtered while hot, and washed on 
the filter with hot water, avoiding channels in the mass. Suffi- 
ciently dense, but yet rapidly-filtering paper, must be used, and 
choice made of funnels with an angle of exactly 60°, whose tube is 
not too wide, and is completely filled by the liquid running 
through. The washing is continued until the addition of a little 
BaCl2 to the last runnings shows no opalescence even after a 
few minutes. The filtrate and washings must not exceed 200 c.c, 
or if they do, they should be concentrated by evaporation. Pure 
HCl in ve7'2/ slight excess is now added ; the liquid is heated to 
boiling ; removed from the burner ; and treated with 40 c.c. of 
a ten-per-cent. solution of BaClg, previously heated to boiling. 
After precipitation the liquid is left to stand for half an hour, 
when the precipitate should be completely settled. The clear 
2Dortion is decanted through a filter, and the precipitate is washed 
with hot water by decantation three or four times, until the liquid 
loses all acid reaction. It should then be washed on to the filter, 
dried, ignited and weighed. Its weight X .1372 = sulphur in one 

gramme of the ore. 

Iron. 

The ferric hydrate, precipitated from the original solution in 
the sulphur determination, is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid. 



Tlie PJwspJiates of America. IGl 

warmed, and reduced with pure zinc until no coloration is produced 
when a drop of the liquid is brought into contact with a drop of 
potassium-sulphocyanate solution. 

It is then cooled, and titrated with j N permanganate solution, 
until the faintest possible pink color remains constant for two 
minutes. Every c.c. of the permanganate employed = .0056 Fe 
in one gramme of the ore. 

Five grammes of the original sample are treated with concen- 
trated nitric acid, and evaporated to dryness. The residue is 
treated with concentrated sulphuric acid ; heated on a sand-bath 
till the free acid is all driven off ; and then cooled, treated with 
water, boiled, cooled again, finally treated with one-fourth its 
volume of alcohol, and allowed to stand for twelve hours and 
filtered. The residue on the filter is washed three times with a 
mixture of one part alcohol and two parts water, and the dilute 
filtrate is then saturated with hydrogen sulphide and allowed to 
stand for some hours. The precipitated sulphides are washed 
with a solution of HgS ; dissolved in aqua regia ; neutralized 
with an excess of ammonia ; and made slightly acid again with 
hydrochloric acid. If not clear, the solution is then filtered, and 
the filter well washed until no longer acid. 

The solution is now boiled ard treated with 25 c.c. of a strong 
mixture, containing equal weights of potassium sulphocyanide and 
sodium bisulphite. The addition is made by degrees and with 
constant stirring, and, when completed, the beaker is removed from 
the fire and allowed to stand until quite cold, when the white pre- 
cipitate of copper suh-sulpliocyanide will have all gone down. 
The liquid is now filtered carefully through a double-tared filter, 
and the precipitate is well washed several times, first by decanta- 
tion with cold water in the beaker, and finally on the filter. The 
Avashing is complete when all traces of chlorides have disappeared, 
and the precipitate is then thoroughly dried in the gas-oven. 
When p)erfcctly dry it is weighed, the tare of the double filter 
is deducted from the weight, and the balance X .^^-^ = Cu in one 
gramme of the ore. 



162 



The Pliosphates of America. 



ANALYSIS OF BRIMSTONE. 
Moisture. 

In order to prevent the evaporation of moisture during grinding, 
an average sample of the unground or only roughly-crushed ma- 
terial weighing 100 grammes is dried at 100° C. for some hours in 

an oven or water-bath. 

Ashes. 

Ten grammes are burnt in a tared porcelain dish and the res- 
idue is weighed. 

Direct Estimation of Sulphur. 

Fifty grammes of the finely-ground brimstone are dissolved in 
200 c.c. carbon bisulphide, by digesting it in a stoppered bottle at 
the ordinary temperature, and the specific gravity of the liquid = s 
is estimated. This must be reduced to the specific gravity at 15° C. 
= S by means of the formula (valid up to 25° C.) S = s + 0.0014 
(t — 15°). The following table gives for each value of S the percent- 
age in this solution, which number must be multiplied by 4 to in- 
dicate the percentage of sulphur in the sample of brimstone : 



Spec. 


% 


Spec. 


% 


Spec. 


i 


Spec. 


% 


Spec. 


% 


Spec. 


% 


Grav. 


S. 


Grav. 


S. 


Grav. 


s. 


Grav. 


S. 


Grav. 


S. 


Grav. 


S. 


1.271 





1.293 


5.0 


1.313 


10.2 


1.334 


15.2 


1.355 


20.4 


1.376 


28.1 


1.373 


0.2 


1.293 


5 3 


1.314 


10.4 


1.335 


15.4 


1.356 


20 6 


1.377 


28.5 


1.2-3 


0.4 


1.294 


5.6 


1.315 


10.6 


1.336 


15.6 


1.357 


31.0 


1.378 


29.0 


1.274 


0.6 


1.295 


5.8 


1.316 


10.9 


1.337 


15.9 


1.358 


31.2 


1.379 


29.7 


1.275 


0.9 


1.296 


6.0 


1.317 


11.1 


1.338 


16.1 


1.3.59 


21.5 


1.380 


30.2 


1.276 


1.2 


1.297 


6.3 


1.318 


11 3 


1.339 


16.4 


1.360 


21.8 


1.381 


30.8 


1.277 


1.4 


1.298 


6.5 


1.319 


11.6 


1.340 


16.6 


1.361 


23.1 


1.383 


31.4 


1 278 


1.6 


1.299 


6.7 


1.320 


11.8 


1..341 


16.9 


1.363 


23.3 


1.383 


31.9 


1.279 


1.9 


1.300 


7.0 


1.321 


12.1 


1.343 


17.1 


1.365 


22.7 


1.384 


33.6 


1.2)^0 


2.1 


1.301 


7.3 


1.323 


13.3 


1.343 


17.4 


1.364 


23.0 


1.385 


33.3 


1.281 


3.4 


1.302 


7.5 


1.323 


12.6 


1.344 


17.6 


1.365 


23.2 


1.386 


33.8 


1.283 


2.6 


1.303 


7.8 


1.324 


13.8 


1.345 


17.9 


1.366 


23.6 


1.387 


34.5 


1.283 


2.9 


1.304 


8.0 


1.335 


13.1 


1.346 


18.1 


1.367 


34.0 


1.388 


35.3 


1.284 


3.1 


1.305 


8.3 


1.326 


13.3 


1.347 


18.4 


1.368 


34.3 


1.389 


36.1 


1.285 


3.4 


1.306 


8.5 


1.327 


13.5 


1.348 


18 6 


1.369 


24.8 


1.390 


36.7 


1.286 


3.6 


1.307 


8 7 


1.338 


13.8 


1.349 


18.9 


1.370 


25.1 


1.391 


37.3 


1.287 


3.9 


1.308 


8.9 


1.329 


14.0 


1.350 


19.0 


1.371 


25.6 


(satur 


Ited) 


1.288 


4.1 


1.309 


9.2 


1 .330 


14.2 


1.3.51 


19.3 


1.373 


26.0 






1.289 


4.4 


1.310 


9.9 


1.331 


14.5 


1.3.53 


19 6 


1.373 


26.5 






1.290 


4.6 


1.311 


9.4 


1.33i 


14.7 


1.353 


19.9 


1.374 


26.9 






1.291 


4.8 


1.312 


9.7 


1.333 


15.0 


1.354 


20.1 


1.375 


37.4 







ESTIMATION OF SULPHURIC ACID. 

According to our experience, the amount of actual H2SO4 con- 
tained in a given bulk of chamber acid is best determined in the 
volumetric way as described by Lunge — i.e., by titrating a meas- 
ured volume of the acid with standard soda solution, using me- 
thyl orange as the indicator (31 grammes pure sodium oxide in 
1 litre distilled water, standardized with very accurate normal HCl.) 



The PUos2)luites of America, 163 

The results are always expressed in percentages of monoby- 
drated sulphuric acid (HoSOi) by weight. The specific gravity of 
the acid is taken with a hydrometer and called x. Ten c.c. of the 
acid are then taken with an accurate pipette and diluted to 100 c.o. 
Of this solution 10 c.c. are taken for titration, and, if the number 
of cubic centimetres of normal soda solution = 0.031 gramme NagO 
per cubic centimetre consumed is called y, the percentage of the 

•1 • 4.9 y 
acid IS i^. 



RAPID ANALYSIS OF LIMESTONE OR CHALK. 

Insoluble. 
One gramme of the substance is dissolved in hydrochloric acid 
and the residue is filtered, washed, dried, and ignited. In the presence 
of appreciable quantities of organic substance the filter is weighed 
after drying at 100°, and afterwards ignited. The difference be- 
tween the first and second weights is taken as organic matter. 

Lime. 

One gramme of the substance is dissolved in 25 c.c. normal hy- 
drochloric acid and titrated with normal alkali. The amount of 
alkali used is deducted from 25 and the remainder is multiplied by 
2.8 to find the percentage of CaO, or by 5 to find that of CaCOj. 
If any magnesia be present it would be calculated as lime, and 
provided its amount be not very large, this is admissible in the 
manufacture of " supei'S " on the plan we have suggested. 

When, however, the magnesia exceeds, say two per cent., it can 

be separately estimated as follows, and the result deducted from the 

figure given above. 

Magnesia. 

Two grammes of the substance are dissolved in HCl ; the CaO 
is precipitated with NH3 and ammonium oxalate, and filtered with 
the usual precautions. The magnesia is precipitated in the filtrate 
by sodium phosphate, filtered, washed with ammonia water, dried, 
ignited, and weighed as Mg^PaOj, which X .3G03 = MgO. 

Iron. 
Two grammes of the substance are dissolved in HCl, reduced 
by zinc, and diluted. Some manganese solution free from iron is 
then added and the mixture is titrated with \ N. permanganate, of 
which each c.c. — .0080 Fe^O^. 



164 



The Phosphates of America. 



TABLE GIVING THE ATOMIC WEIGHT OF THE ELEMENTS ACCORDING TO 
THE LATEST DETERMINATIOJSIS. 



Name. 



Aluminum. 
Antimony. . 

Arsenic 

Barium 

Beryllium. . 
Bismuth. . . 

Boron 

Bromine. . . 
Cadmium. . 

Cfesium 

Calcium 

Carbon 

Chlorine . . . 

Cerium 

Chromium. 

Cobalt 

Copper 

Didymium. 
Erbium. ... 
Fluorine. . . 

Gold 

Hydrogen. . 

Indium 

Iodine , 

Iridium. . .. 

Iron 

Lanthanum 

Lead 

Lithium. . . 
Magnesium, 
Manganese. 
Mercury. . . 



Atomic 
Weisrlit. 



27, 
122, 

74, 

136, 

9, 

210, 

11, 

79. 
Ill, 
133. 

39. 

11. 

35. 
141, 

52. 

58, 

63, 
147, 
169, 

19, 
196, 
1, 
113, 
126, 
196, 

55 

139, 

206 

7, 

28, 

54, 
199, 



Name. 



Molybdenum 

Nickel 

Niobium. . . . 
Nitrogen. . . . 

Osmium 

Oxygen 

Palladium. . , 
Phosphorus. . 
Platinum. . . 
Potassium. . , 
Rhodium,. . . 
Rubidium . . . 
Ruthenium . . 
Selenium. . . . 

Silicon 

Silver 

Sodium 

Strontium . . 

Svilphur 

Tantalum . . . 
Tellurium . . . 
Thallium. . . , 
Thorium. . . . 

Tin 

Titanium.. .. 
Tungsten. . . 
Uranium. . . . 
Vanadium. . . 

Yttrium 

Zinc 

Zirconium. . , 



Atomic 
Weig-ht. 



95, 

58. 

94. 

14. 
198. 

15. 
106. 

30. 
196. 

39. 
104. 

85. 
103. 

78. 

28, 
107. 

22. 

87. 

81. 
182. 
128. 
203. 
231. 
117. 

48. 
184. 
240. 

51. 

93. 

84. 

90. 



The Phos2)hates of America. 165 

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF THE METRICAL SYSTEM. 

Weights. 
1 millig'ramme = .001 gramme. 

1 centigramme = .01 gramme. 

1 decigramme = .1 gramme. 

1 gramme = weight of a cubic centimetre of water at 4° C. 

1 decagramme = 10.000 grammes. 
1 hectogramme = 100.000 grammes. 
1 kilogramme = 1000.000 grammes. 

Measures of Capacity. 

1 millilitre = 1 cubic centimetre, or the measure of 1 gramme of 

water. 
1 centilitre — 10 cubic cent. 
1 decilitre = 100 cubic cent. 
1 litre =z 1000 cubic cent. 

Measures of Length. 
1 millimetre = .001 metre, 
i centimetre = .01 metre. 
1 decimetre = .1 metre. 
1 metre = the ten-millionth part of a quarter of the earth's meridian. 

STOCHIOMETRY, OR CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS. 

Conversion of Thermometer Degrees, 

°C. to °R., multiply by 4 and divide by 5. 

"C. to °F., multiply by 9, divide by 5, then add 33. 

"R. to °C., multiply by 5 and divide by 4. 

°R. to °F., mviliiply by 9, divide by 4, then add 32. 

°F. to "R., first subtract 33, then multiply by 4 and divide by 9. 

°F. to °C., first subtract 33, then multiply by 5 and divide by 9. 

To Find the Percentage Comjmsition having the Formula Given. 
Find the molecular weight from the formula, then 

Molecular weight Weight of constituent in a molecule . 
100 ~ Percentage of constituent. 

Or, proceed thus : 

Multiply the atomic weight of the element by 1, 2, 3, etc., according 
to the number of atoms of the element there are in the molecule ; multi- 
ply the number thus obtained by 100 and divide by the molecular weight. 

To Find the Weight of any Element Contained in any Given Weight 
of a Compound Substance. 

Molecular weight _ Weight of constituent in a molecule. 
Given weight ~ Required weight. 

Or, multiply the atomic weight of the element by 1, 2, 3, etc., accord- 
ing to the number of atoms of the element there are in the molecule ; 
multiply the number thus obtained by the given weight and divide by 
the molecular weight. 



166 The PhosjjJiates of America. 

DETERMINATION OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLIDS. 

Solids heavier than, and insoluble in, water. 

a. By weighing in air and water. 

(weiglit in air) 

DP. err, = ^^ = ' • 

(loss of weight in water) 

h. By Nicholson's hydrometer. 

Let IV I be the weight required to sink the instrument to the mark 
on the stem, the weight of the instrument being W ; to take the 
specific gravity of any solid substance, place a portion of it weigh- 
ing- less than w^ in the upper pan, with such additional weight, say 
Wg, as will cause the instrument to sink to the zero-mark. The 
weight of the substance is then Wj — W3. Next transfer the sub- 
stance to the lower pan, and again adjust with weight iv^ to the 
zero-mark. 

^ w, — ir^ 

Sp. gr. = 



W^ — UK 



c. By the specific-gravity bottle (applicable to powders). 

Weigh the flask filled to the mark with water, then place the 
substance, of known weight in the fJask, fill *o the mark with 
water and weigh again. 



Sp. gr. 



(weight of substance in air) + (weight of flask and water) — 

(weight of flask and water and substance) 

(weight of substance in air) 

Solids lighter than, and insoluble in, water. 

The solid is weighted by a piece of lead of known specific gravity 
and weighed in water. 

o _ (weight of substance in air) 

(weight of lead in water) — (weight of lead and substance in 
water) + (weight of substance in air) 

Solids heavier than, and insoluble in, water. 

Proceed as in a, using instead of water some liquid without 
action on the solid, 

(weight of bulk of liquid equal to substance) = 
(weight of substance in air) — (weight of substance in liquid). 

(weight of bulk of liquid equal to substance) 
(weight of bulk of water ^ ^^p^ ^^_ ^j ^^^^^.^ 

equal to substance) = (sp. gr. of liquid) * 

(weight of substance in air) 
^ ■ ^ ■ ~ (weight of bulk of water equal to substance)' 



Tlie Phosphates of America. 167 

NOTES ON STANDARD ACID, ALKALINE, AND OTHER 
SOLUTIONS, CALLED FOR IN THIS WORK. 

In the conduct of volumetric examinations, which are frequently 
extremely useful, exj^editious and exact, it is essential that all 
" standard " solutions be prejDared and employed as nearly as 2>os- 
sible at a constant temperature. This temperature should be that 
of the surrounding atmosphere, or as cool a place as may be avail- 
able in the laboratory, say 60° to 70° F. The liquids should be 
kept as clear as possible, and always shaken up just previous to 
being used. 

The indicator most commonly used in alkalimetry and acidi- 
metry is tincture of litmus, which must be kept in open vessels, to 
avoid its being spoiled. AVhen employing litmus, the liquid to be 
tested must be kej^t boiling for some time, in order to expel all 
COo ; and normal acid must be added as long as further boiling 
causes the color to change back from red to purple or blue. This 
takes a long time ; sometimes half an hour or even more. This 
time may be saved by replacing litmus by a very dilute solution of 
methyl-orange (sulphobenzene-azodimethyl-aniline) ; but in this 
case the liquids must never be hot, but of the ordinary temperature, 
and none but mineral acids may be employed. The cold solution 
of sodium carbonate is colored just perceptibly yellow by adding a 
drop or two of the solution of methyl-orange, preferably by means 
of a pipette ; if the color is too intense, it will on neutralization 
cause the transition into red to be less sharj). Methyl-orange is 
not acted ujDon in the least by COj, and when all NaaCOg has been 
decomposed, the slightest excess of HCl causes the yellow to change 
suddenly and sharply into pink. The rule is, therefore, to run in 
the normal acid quickly and with constant agitation till the change 
of color has taken place. The opposite change of color from jjink 
to faint yellow is just as sharp when titrating mineral acids with 
sodium hydrate or carbonate. The results are identical with those 
obtained by litmus, but, as we have said, they are obtained very 
much more quickly, and without heating the liquids. 

Other indicators inconstant use are phenolphthalein and coral- 
line, of which it is always useful to have a small supply. 

NORMAL SODIUM CARBONATE. 

Dissolve 53 grammes of pure, dry monocarbonate, prepared by 



lt)8 The Phosphates of America. 

igniting the bicarbonate to redness, in water, and make up to one 
litre. 

NORMAL SULPHURIC ACID. 

Dilute about 30 c.c. of pure' sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1.840) to one 
litre ; then determine the strength of this solution by titration with 
normal sodium carbonate, and dilute so as to make one c.c. of the 
sulphuric acid neutralize one c.c. of the alkali ; after dilution check 
the strength by another titration. 

DECI-NORMAL OXALIC ACID. 

Dissolve 6.3 grammes of pure, recrystallized oxalic acid, dried 
between paper, in one litre of water. 

NORMAL HYDROCHLORIC ACID. 

Dilute 181 grammes of the pure acid, of sp. gr. 1.10, to one litre ; 

N 
check by titration with — silver solution or by sodium carbonate. 

NORMAL NITRIC ACID. 

Take some pure nitric acid and dilute to one litre. The strength 
of this solution must be ascertained, and the acid diluted accord- 
ingly. The most exact method of checking the nitric acid is by 
pure calcium carbonate, one gramme of which requires 20 c.c. of 
normal acid. 

NORMAL CAUSTIC ALKALI. 

Take about 42 grammes of jf:)wre sodium hydrate and dis- 
solve in 800 c.c. of water ; titrate with any normal acid, and dilute 
until it corresponds with the acid, volume for volume. Normal 
POTASSIUM HYDRATE may be made in a similar manner. 

NORMAL AMMONIUM HYDRATE 

is made by diluting strong ammonia to the required strength, and 
checking by titration with normal acid. 

DECI-NORMAL SILVER NITRATE SOLUTION. 

Dissolve 10.8 grammes of pure silver in pure dilute nitric acid, 
heat gently, and wben dissolved dilute to one litre. If a neutral 
solution is required, take 17 grammes of pure silver nitrate and 
dissolve in water to one litre. Of this solution 



The PhospJiaies of America. 169 

1 c.c. = .01080 gramme Ag-. 

" = .01700 " AgNog. 

" = .00355 " CI. 

" =: .00585 " NaCl. 

DECI-NORMAL SODIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIOIJ^. 

Dissolve 5.85 grammes of pure sodium cliloride, dried by gentle 
ignition, to one litre. 

1 c.c. = .00585 gramme NaCl. 
" = .00355 " CI. 

" = .01080 " Ag-. 

BARIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTION. 

Dissolve 122 grammes of barium chloride, dried between paper 
to one litre. 

1 c.c. = .0490 gramme H2SO4. 

" = .0480 " SO^. 

" = .0400 " SO3. 

«« = .1220 " BaCl2(2H20). 

" = .1040 " BaCla. 

" = .0685 " Ba. 

STANDARD URANIUM SOLUTION. 

Take about 40 grammes of uranium acetate, dissolve in water ; 
add about 25 c.c. of glacial acetic acid, and make up to one litre. 
This solution is then titrated against the sodium phosphate and 
diluted until 50 c.c. are equivalent to 50 c.c. of the latter. 

1 c.c. = .002 gramme P2O5. 

STANDARD SODIUM PHOSPHATE SOLUTION. 

Take 10.085 grammes of pure, crystallized, non-effloresced, di- 
sodium hydrogen jihosphate, dried between paper, and dissolve to 
one litre. Check this solution by evaporating 50 c.c. to dryness 
and igniting. The residue should weigh .1874 gramme. 

50 c.c. = .1 gramme PgOg. 

SODIUM ACETATE SOLUTION. 

Dissolve 100 grammes of the salt in water, add 100 cc. of pure 
acetic acid (sp. gr. 1.04), and dilute to one litre. Exact quantities 
are not necessary. 



170 TJie Phosphates of America. 

MAGNESIA MIXTURE. 

Dissolve 110 grammes of dry crystallized magnesium chloride 
and 280 grammes of ammonium chloride in one litre of distilled 
water. Filter, add 700 c.c. liquor of ammonia of specific gravity 
.96 and shake. Allow to cool and then add sufficient distilled 
water to complete two litres, mix thoroughly and label. 

NEUTRAL AMMONIUM CITRATE SOLUTION. 

Mix 3Y0 grammes of commercial citric acid with 1500 cubic 
centimetres of water ; nearly neutralize with crushed commercial 
carbonate of ammonia ; heat to expel the carbonic acid ; cool ; add 
ammonia until exactly neutral (testing by saturated alcoholic 
solution of coralline) and bring to a volume of two litres. Test the 
gravity, which should be 1.09 at 20° C, before using. 

AMMONIUM NITRATE SOLUTION, 

Dissolve 200 grammes of commercial ammonium nitrate in 
water and bring to a volume of two litres. 

MOLYBDIC SOLUTION. 

Dissolve 150 grammes of ammonium molybdate in one litre of 
distilled water. Pour the solution slowly and in small portions at 
a time into one litre of nitric acid of specific gravity 1.20. After 
each addition of the ammonium molybdate solution the mixture 
must be shaken and the agitation kept up until the liquid is en- 
Irrely clear. 

Keep the mixture in a warm place for several days, or until a 
portion heated to 40° C. deposits no yellow precipitate of ammonium 
phospho-molybdate. Decant the solution from any sediment, and 
preserve in glass-stoppered vessels. 

Fifty c.c. of this solution suffice to precipitate 0.100 gramme 

SATURATED SOLUTION OF AMMONIUM OXALATE. 

Place about eight ounces of jDure ammonium oxalate in a litre 
bottle, fill up with pure distilled water, shake occasionally during 
a few hours, finally allow to settle and use the supernatant liquid, 
drawing it off with a jjipette as required. 

STANDARD POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE SOLUTION. 

For the accurate determination of iron in small quantities we 
prefer the permanganate to any other reagent. The iron is re- 



The Phosphates of A)nerica. 



171 



<luced to the ferrous state and the permanganate solution is then 
added until all the iron is lieroxidized, a fact which is demon- 
strated directly the color of the iron solution turns purple. The 
quantity of permanganate used in the operation is the measure of 
the iron present, as may be gathered from the equation : 

10FeSOi+8H2SOi+2KMnOi = 5Fe,{SO4)3+K,SO,+2MnSO, + 8H,O. 

The solution may be conveniently made of quinquenormal 
strength. Dissolve 3.162 grammes of very dry permanganate of 
potassium in one litre of water and keep in a stoppered bottle. 
Every c.c. of the solution should be equal to .0056 Fe or .0080 
Fe,03. 

To ascertain its exact strength, which is a very important jDoint 
considering the small amounts of ii'on we are generally called 
upon to determine, dissolve one gramme of double sulphate of iron 
and ammonium in 20 c.c. of water and 5 c.c. dilute sulphuric acid. 
If 25 c.c. of the permanganate are required to produce a faint 
pink color, permanent for two minutes, the solution is sufficiently 
correct. One hundred c.c. of this solution may be diluted to one 
litre with distilled water and labelled ^^ N- permanganate solution, 
every c.c. of which = .00080 ferric oxide. 

SYMBOLS, MOLECULAR WEIGHTS, AND PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION, OF SUB- 
STANCES USED IN THE FERTILIZER INDUSTRY. 









Molec- 




Substance. 


Molecular Formula 


ular 


Percentage Composition. 








Weight 




Ahiminum 


oxide 


AI2O3 


103 


Al 53.40, 46.60. 


" 


hydrate 


Al3(H0)e .... 


157 


AlgO, 65.61, HoO 34.39. 


Ammonia, 
Ammoniur 




NH3 


17 


N 82.35, H 17.67. 


n carbonate. 


H(NH4)Co, + 






(NH,)L0,NH2. 


157 


NH3 32.49, CO., 56.05, 
HoO 11.46. " 


" 


chloride. . . 


NH.Cl 


53.5 


NH3 31.77, HCl 68.23. 


<( 


magnesium 
phosphate 
cryst 


Mg(NH4)PO,+ 










6aq 


245 


MgO 16.30, NH., 6 93 










P0O5 29.09. H.,0 47.68. 


<< 


nitrate 


NH4NO3 


80 


NH3 21.25, N,d. 67.50, 
H2O 11.25. 


<( 


phosphate. 

sod'm phos- 
phate 


(NHJ.HPO^.. 
{NH4)NaHP04 


132 


NH, 25.68, P0O5 53.93, 
H2O 20.39. 






+ 4aq 


209 


NH38.I3, Na,0 14.83, 
P2O5 33.97; H2O 43.06. 



172 



The PhQS2)hates of Amei'ica. 



Symbolb, Molecular Weights, and Percentage Composition, of Substances used in tlie Fer- 
tilizer Industry. — Continued. 







Molec- 




Substance. 


Molecular Formula 


ular 
Weight 


Percentage Composition. 


Barium chloride 


BaCl, +2aq... 


244 


BaClo 85.24, H3O 14.76. 


" sulphate , 


BaSO^ 


233 


BaO 65.67, SO3 34.33. 


Calcium monoxide 

" hydrate 


CaO 


56 

74 


Ca 71.43. 28.57. 
CaO 75.67. H^O 24.33. 


Ca(HO), 


" carbonate . . . . 


CaCOg 


100 


CaO 56.00, COg 44.00. 


" chloride 


CaClg 


111 


Ca 36.05, CI 63.95. 


" chloride cryst. 


CaCl2+6aq... 


219 


CaClg 50.69, H,0 49.31. 


" phosphate 








monobasic 


CaH,(PO,),.. 


234 


CaO 28.93, PgOg 60.68, 
HoO 15.38. 


" phosphate, di- 








basic 


CaHP04.. 


136 


CaO 41.18, P3O- 52.20, 
H2O 6.62. 








" phosphate, tri- 








basic 


Ca3(P0J, .... 


310 


CaO 54.19, P2O5 45.81. 


" sulphate, an- 




hydrous 


CaSO^ 


136 


CaO 41.18, SO3 58.82. 


" sulphate, cryst 








(gypsum) 


CaSO^ + 3aq . . 


172 


CaO 32.56, SO3 46.51, 
H^O 20.93. 


Carbonic anhydride. . . . 


CO, 


44 


C 27.27, 72.73. 


" oxide 


CO". 


28 


C 42 85 57 15 


Hydrochloric acid 


HCl 


36.5 


CI 97.26, H 2.74. 


Iron oxide 


FeoOo 


160 


Fe 70.00, 30.00. 


Magnesium chloride. . . . 
" chloride 


MgClg 


95 


Mg 25.26, CI 74.74. 




crystals 


MgClo 4-6aq.. 


203 


MgClo 46.80, H3O 53.20. 


" carbonate.. 


MgC03 


84 


MgO 46.62, CO^ 53.38. 


" sulphate . . 


MgbO^ + 7aq.. 


246 


M^O 16.26, SO, 32.52, 
H2O 51.32. 


" pyrophos- 








phate 


Mg,P,0, 


222 


MgO 36.04, PoOs 63.96. 


Nitric acid 


HNO3 


63 


N.,05 85.71, H.O 14.29. 
P 43.66. 56.34. 
P3O5 72.45, HoO 27.55. 


Phosphoric anhydride.. 
'• acid 


p.,o, 


142 

98 


H3PO, 


Potassium permangan- 








ate 


KMn04 . 


158 


KgO 29.75, MnoO^ 70.25. 
Si 46.67, 53.33. 
NaoO 77.50, H.,0 22.50. 


Silicic acid 


SiOo 


60 
40 


Sodium hydrate 


NaHO 


'• carbonate 


Na.,CO, 


106 


Na„0 58.49, COo 41.51. 


" bicarbonate. . . . 


NaHCOa 


84 


Na.,0 36.90, CO^ 52.38, 
HoO 10.71. 


" Dhosphate . ... 


Na..HP04 + 12 








aq 


358 


NaoO 17.82, P,0- 19 84 








HoO 62.84. " " 


Sulphurous anhydride.. 
Sulphuric anhydride . . . 


SO, 


64 

80 


S 50.00, 50.00. 
S 40.00, 60.00. 


so; 


" acid (mono- 








hydrate) 


HoSO, 


98 


SO, 81.68, HgO 18.87. 


Pyro-sulphuric acid 


H,SoO 


178 


H2SO, .55.06.. SO, 44.94. 


Thio-sulphuric " .... 


H3S2O3 


114 


SOo 56.14, S 28.07, HoO 
15.79. 


Water 


HoO 


18 


H 11.11, 88.89. 





Tlie Phosphates of America. 



173 



USEFUL TABLES FOR THE FACTORY. 

TABLE FOR THE SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS OF ALKALIES, ALKALINE EARTHS 

AND ACIDS. 



Substance. 



Sodium oxide 

" hydrate 

" carbonate 

" bicarbonate.. . . 

Potassium oxide 

" hydrate 

" carbonate. . 

" bicarbonate., 

Ammonia 

Ammonium carbonate. , 
Calcium oxide (lime). . . , 

" hydrate 

" carbonate 

Barium hydrate 

" (cry.)..., 

" cai'bonate 

Strontium oxide 

" carbonate... 

Magnesium oxide 

" carbonate. , 

Nitric acid 

Hydrochloric acid 

Sulphuric acid 

Oxalic acid 

Acetic acid 

Tartaric acid 

Citric acid 



Formula. 



NagO 

NaHO 

Na.,C03 

NaHCdg 

KoO 

KHO 

K„COs 

KHCO3 

NH3 

(NH,),C03 

CaO 

CaHgOg 

CaCOg 

BaH.,0., 

BaH.,0.^8H.,0 

BaCOs " 

SrO 

SrCOg 

Mg-0 

MgC03 

HNO3 

HCl 

h;so, 

H,C.,Oi 

h;c;o3 

H6C40e 
C,,0,H8+H20 



Molec- 
ular 
Weijrht. 



62 

40 
106 

84. 

94 

56 
188 
100 

17 

96 

56 

74 
100 
171 
315 
197 
103.5 
147.5 

40 

84 

63 

36.5 

98 
126 

60 
150 
210 



Quantitj"^ to be 
weiffhed so that 
1 c.c. of Normal 

Solution :=: 

] per cent, of 
Substance. 



Grammes. 

3.1 

4.0 

5.3 

8.4 

4.7 

5.6 

6.9 
10.0 

1.7 

4.8 

2.8 

3.7 

5.0 

8.55 
15.75 

9.85 

5.175 

7.375 

2.00 

4.20 

6.3 

3.65 

4.9 

6.3 

6.0 

7.5 

7.0 



Normal 
Factor. 



.031 

.040 

.053 

.084 

.047 

.056 

.069 

. 100 

.017 

.048 

.028 

.037 

.050 

.0855 

. 1575 

.0985 

.0575 

.07375 

.020 

.042 

.063 

.0365 

.049 

.063 

.060 

.075 

.070 



In order to find the amount of pure substance present in the material examined 
multiply the number of c.c. by the " normal factor." 

TABLE COMPARING THE DEGREES OF BAUME WITH SPECIFIC GRAVITY DEGREES AT 1.5" C. 



Degs. of 
Baum6. 


Sp. Gr. 


Degs. of 
Baume. 


Sp. Gr. 


Dess. of 
Baum6. 


Sp. Gr. 


Deg^s. of 
Baum6. 


Sp. Gr. 





1.000 


19 


1.147 


37 


1.337 


55 


1.596 


1 


1.007 


20 


1.157 


38 


1.349 


56 


1 . 615 


2 


1.014 


21 


1.166 


39 


1.361 


57 


1.634 


3 


1.020 


22 


1.176 


40 


1.3^5 


58 


1.653 


4 


1.028 


23 


1.185 


41 


1.388 


59 


1.671 


5 


1.031 


24 


1.195 


42 


1.401 


60 


1.690 


6 


1.041 


25 


1.205 


43 


1.414 


61 


1.709 


7 


1.049 


26 


1.215 


44 


1.428 


62 


1.729 


8 


1.057 


27 


1.225 


45 


1.442 


63 


1.750 


9 


1.064 


28 


1.234 


46 


1.456 


64 


1.771 


10 


1.072 


29 


1.245 


47 


1.470 


65 


1.793 


11 


1.080 


30 


1.256 


48 


1.485 


66 


1.815 


12 


1.088 


31 


1.267 


49 


1.500 


67 


1.839 


13 


1.096 


32 


1.278 


50 


1 . 515 


68 


1.864 


14 


1.104 


33 


1.289 


51 


1.531 


69 


1.885 


15 


1.113 


34 


1.300 


52 


1.546 


70 


1.909 


16 


1.121 


35 


1.312 


53 


1.562 


71 


1.935 


17 


1.130 


36 


1.324 


54 


1.578 


72 


1.960 


18 


1.138 















174 



The Phosphates of America, 



ANTHON'S TABLE BY WHICH TO PREPARE SULPHURIC ACID (OIL OF VITRIOL) OF ANY 
STRENGTH BY MIXING THE ACID OF 1.8G SPECIFIC GRAVITY WITH WATER. 



100 parts of W^ater 
at \^° to 20° beiiv 
mixed with parts 
of Sulphuric Acid 
of l.«6 sp. g-r. 



10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
55 
60 
65 
70 
75 
80 
85 
90 
95 
100 
110 
120 



Give an 
Acid of 
Specific 
Gravity. 



1.009 
1.015 
1.035 
1.060 
1.090 
1.113 
1.140 
1.165 
1.187 
1.210 
1.229 
1.248 
1.365 
1.280 
1.297 
1.312 
1.326 
1.340 
1.357 
1.372 
1.386 
1.398 
1.420 
1.438 



100 parts of Water 
lat 15° to 20° being 
1 mixed with parts 
lof Sulpliuric Acid 
1 of l.«6 sp. K-r. 


Give an 
Acid of 
Specflc 
Gravity. 


130 




1.456 


140 




1.473 


150 




1.490 


160 




1.510 


170 




1.530 


180 




1.543 


190 




1.456 


200 




1.568 


210 




1.580 


220 




1.593 


230 




1.606 


240 




1.620 


250 




1.630 


260 




1.640 


270 




1.648 


280 




1.654 


290 




1.667 


300 




1.678 


310 




1.689 


320 




1.700 


330 




1.705 


340 




1.710 


350 




1.714 


360 




1.719 



100 parts of Water 
at 15° to 'M'' being- 
mixed witli parts 
of Sulphuric Acid 
of 1.86 sp. gr. 



370 
380 
390 
400 
410 
420 
430 
440 
450 
460 
470 
480 
490 
500 
510 
530 
530 
540 
550 
560 
580 
590 
600 



Give an 
Acid of 
Specflc 
Gravity. 



1.723 
1.727 
1.730 
1.733 
1.737 
1.740 
1.743 
1.746 
1.750 
1.754 
1.757 
1.760 
1.763 
1.766 
1.768 
1.770 
1.773 
1.774 
1.776 
1.777 
1.778 
1.780 
1.782 



TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS OF PHOSPHORIC ACID BY SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY AT 1.5» C. 



Specific 


Per cent, of 


Per cent, of 


Specific 


Per cent, of 


Per cent, of 


Gravity. 


H3PO4. 


P2O5. 


Gravity. 


H3P04. 


P-.Os 


l.(X)54 


1 


.726 


1.1962 


31 


22.506 


1.0109 


3 


1.452 


1.2036 


32 


23.232 


1.0164 


3 


2.178 


1.2111 


33 


23.958 


1.0320 


4 


2.904 


1.2186 


34 


24.684 


1.0276 


5 


3.630 


1.2362 


35 


25.410 


1.0333 


6 


4.356 


1.2338 


36 


26.13G 


1.0390 


7 


5.082 


1.2415 


37 


26.862 


1.0449 


8 


5.808 


1.2493 


38 


27.588 


1.0508 


9 


6..534 


1.2572 


39 


28.314 


1.0567 


10 


7.260 


1.2651 


40 


29.040 


1.0627 


11 


7.986 


1.2731 


41 


29.766 


1.0688 


12 


8.712 


1.2812 


42 


30.492 


1.0749 


13 


9.438 


1.2894 


43 


31.218 


1.0811 


14 


10.164 


1.2976 


44 


31.944 


1.0874 


15 


10.890 


1.3059 


45 


32.6';0 


1.0937 


16 


11.616 


1.3143 


46 


33.496 


1.1001 


17 


12.342 


1.32^7 


47 


34.222 


1.1065 


18 


13.068 


1.3313 


48 


34.948 


1.1130 


19 


13.794 


1.3399 


49 


35.674 


1.1196 


20 


14.520 


1.3486 


50 


36.400 


1.1262 


21 


15.246 


1.3573 


51 


37.126 


1.1329 


22 


15.973 


1.3661 


52 


37.852 


1.1397 


23 


16.698 


1.3750 


53 


38..578 


1.1465 


24 


17.424 


1.3840 


54 


39.304 


1.1534 


25 


18.1.50 


1.3931 


55 


40.030 


1.1604 


26 


18.876 


1.4022 


56 


40.756 


1.1674 


27 


19.602 


1.4114 


57 


41.482 


1.1745 


28 


20.328 


1.4207 


58 


42.208 


1.1817 


29 


21.0.54 


1.4301 


59 


42.934 


1.1889 


30 


21.780 


1.4.395 


60 


43.660 



The Plwsphaies of America. 

URE'S TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS OF AMMONIA. 



175 



Specific 


Per cent, of 


Specific 


Per cent, of 


Specific 


Per cent, of 


Gravity. 


Ammonia. 


Gravity. 


Ammonia. 


Gravity. 


Ammonia. 


.8914 


37.940 


.9177 


21.200 


.9564 


10.600 


.8937 


27.633 


.9227 


19.875 


.9614 


9.275 


.8967 


27.038 


.9275 


18.550 


.9662 


7.950 


.8983 


26.751 


.9320 


17.225 


.9716 


6.625 


.9000 


26.500 


.9363 


15.900 


.9768 


5.300 


.9045 


25.175 


.9410 


14.575 


.9828 


3.975 


.9090 


23.850 


.9455 


13.250 


.9887 


2.650 


.9133 


22.525 


.9510 


11.925 


.9945 


1.325 



TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS OF BARIUM CHLORIDE BY SPECIFIC 
GRAVITY AT 21.5° C. 



Specific 


Per cent, of 


Per cent, of 


Specific 


Per cent, of 


Per cent, of 


Gravity. 


BaClj + 2Aq. 


BaClo. 


Gravity. 


BaClo -4- 2Aq. 


BaCl^. 


1.0073 


1 


.853 


1.1302 


16 


13.641 


1.0147 


2 


1.705 


1.1394 


17 


14.494 


1.0222 


3 


2.558 


1.1488 


18 


15.346 


1.0298 


4 


3.410 


1.1584 


19 


16.199 


1.0374 





4.263 


1.1683 


20 


17.051 1 


1.0452 


6 


5.115 


1.1783 


21 


17.904 


1.0530 


7 


5.968 


1.1884 


22 


18.756 


1.0610 


8 


6.821 


1.1986 


23 


19.609 


1.0692 


9 


7.673 


1.2090 


24 


20.461 


1.0776 


10 


8.526 


1.2197 


25 


21.314 


1.0861 


11 


9.379 


1.2304 


26 


22.166 


1.0947 


12 


10.231 


1.2413 


27 


23.019 


1.1034 


13 


11.084 


1.2523 


28 


23.871 


1.1122 


14 


11.936 


1.2636 


29 


24.724 


1.1211 


15 


12.789 


1.2750 


30 


25.577 



TABLES SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND PERCENTAGE OP SOME SATURATED 
SOLUTIONS USED IN FERTILIZER ANALYSIS, ETC. 

The Percentage refers to Anhydrous Salt. 



Ammonium chloride. 

" sulphate 

Barium chloride. . . . . 

Calcium cliloride 

Magnesium sulpliate 



Tem- 






perature. 


Percentage 


Specific 


Celsius. 


of Salt. 


Gravity. 


15 


26.30 


1.0776 


19 


50.00 


1.2890 


15 


25.97 


1.2827 


15 


40.66 


1.4110 


15 


25.25 


1.2880 



176 



The Phosphates of America. 



TABLK SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS OF NITRIC ACID BY SPECIFIC GRAVITY 

AT 15° C. 





Liquid 


Dry 


Spe- 


Liquid 


Dry 


Spe- 


Liquid 


Dry 


Spe- 


Liquid 


Dry 


Specific 


Aoid 


Acid 


cific 


Acid 


Acid 


cific 


Acid 


Acid 


cific 


Acid 


Acid 


Grav- 


(sp.^r. 


in 100 


Grav- 


(sp.sr. 


in 100 


Grav- 


(sp.j,'r. 


in 100 


Grav- 


(sp.gr. 


in 100 


ity. 


1.5) in 
100 pts 


parts 


ity. 


1.5) in 
100 pts 


Ijarts 


ity. 


1.5) in 
100 pts 

50 


part.s 
;59.850 


ity. 


1 5) in 

100 pts 


parts 


1.5000 


100 


79.700 


1.4189 


75 


59.775 


1.2947 


1.1403 


25 


19.925 


1.4980 


99 


78.903 


1.4147 


74 


58.978 


1.2887 


49 


39.^53 


1.1345 


24 


19.128 


1.4960 


98 


78.106 


1.4107 


73 


58.181 


1.2826 


48 


38.256 


1.1286 


23 


18.;331 


1.4940 


97 


77.309 


1.4065 


72 


57.384 


1.2765 


47 


37.4.59 


1.1227 


22 


17.534 


1.4910 


96 


76.512 


1.402:3 


71 


56.557 


1 2705 


46 


36.662 


1.1168 


31 


16.737 


1.4880 


95 


75.715 


1.3978 


70 


55.790 


1.2644 


45 


35.865 


1.1109 


20 


15.940 


1.4850 


94 


74.918 


1.3945 


69 


54.993 


1.2,583 


44 


.35.068 


1.1051 


19 


15.143 


1.48iO 


93 


74.121 


l.;-J883 


68 


54.196 


1.2523 


4:3 


34.271 


1.0993 


18 


14.;346 


1.4790 


92 


73.324 


1.3833 


67 


53.339 


1.3463 


42 


33.474 


1.0935 


17 


13.. 549 


1.4760 


91 


72.527 


1 .3783 


66 


53 602 


1.3402 


41 


;32.677 


1.0878 


16 


12.7.52 


1.4730 


90 


71.730 


1.3732 


65 


51.805 


1.2341 


40 


31.880 


1,0821 


15 


11.9.55 


1.4700 


89 


70.933 


1.8681 


64 


51.068 


1.2277 


39 


31 083 


1.0764 


14 


11.1.58 


1.4670 


88 


70.136 


1.3630 


63 


.50.211 


1.2212 


38 


;i0.286 


1.0708 


13 


10.368 


1.4640 


87 


69.339 


1.3579 


62 


49.414 


1.2148 


37 


29.4f9 


1.06.-il 


12 


9.564 


1.4600 


86 


68.542 


1.3529 


61 


48.617 


1.2084 


36 


28.692 


1.0.595 


11 


8.767 


1.4570 


85 


67.745 


1.3477 


60 


47.820 


1.2019 


35 


27.895 


1.0.540 


10 


7.970 


1.4530 


84 


66.948 


1.3427 


59 


47.023 


1 . 1958 


34 


27.098 


1.0485 


9 


7.173 


1.4500 


83 


66.155 


1 .3376 


58 


46.226 


1.1895 


33 


26.301 


1.04:30 


8 


6.376 


1.4460 


82 


65.354 


1.3323 


57 


45.429 


1.1833 


33 


25.504 


1.9375 


7 


5.. 579 


1,4434 


81 


64.557 


1.3270 


56 


44.633 


1.1770 


31 


24.707 


1.03:^0 


6 


4.782 


1.4:385 


80 


63.760 


1.3216 


55 


43.836 


1.1709 


30 


23.900 


1.0267 


5 


3.985 


1.4346 


79 


62.963 


1.3163 


54 


43.038 


1.1648 


39 


23.113 


1.0212 


4 


3.138 


1.4306 


78 


62.166 


1.3110 


53 


42.241 


1.1.587 


38 


22.316 


1.01.59 


3 


2.391 


1.4269 


77 


61.369 


1.3056 


52 


41 .444 


1.1.515 


27 


21.517 


1.0106 


2 


1.594 


1.4228 


76 


60.572 


1 .3(X)1 


51 


40.647! 


1.1467 


26 


20.722 


1.00.-)3 


1 


0.797 



TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID BY SPECIFIC GRAVITY 

AT 15" C. 



Spe- 


Per 


Per 


Spe- 


Per 


Per 


Spe- 


Per 


Per 


Spe- 


Per 


Per 


cific 


cent. 


cent. 


cific 


cent. 


cent. 


cific 


cent. 


cent. 


cific 


cent. 


cent. 


Grav- 


of 


of acid 


Grav- 


of 


of acid 


Grav- 


of 


of acid 


Grav- 


of 


of acid 


ity. 


HCl. 


of 1,20 
sp. ,gr. 

100 


ity. 


HCl. 


of 1.20 
sp. gr. 


ity. 


HCl 


of 1.20 
sp. gr. 


ity. 
1.0497 


HCl 


of 1.20 
sj). gr. 


1.2000 


40.777 


1.1515 


:30.582 


7^ 


1.1000 


20.388 


50 


10.194 


25 


1.1982 


40.;369 


99 


1.1494 


30.174 


74 


1.0980 


19.980 


49 


1.0477 


9.786 


24 


1.1964 


39.961 


98 


1.1473 


29.767 


73 


1.0960 


19, 572 


48 


1.0157 


9.379 


23 


1 . 1946 


39.5.54 


97 


1.14.52 


29.3.59 


72 


1.0939 


19.165 


47 


1.0437 


8.971 


22 


1.1928 


;39.146 


96 


1.1431 


28.951 


71 


1.0919 


18.757 


46 


1.0417 


8.563 


21 


1.1910 


38.7:38 


95 


1.1410 


28.544 


70 


1.0899 


18.349 


45 


1.0;}97 


8.155 


20 


1.1893 


38.330 


94 


1.1389 


28.136 


69 


1.0879 


17.941 


44 


1 .0377 


7.747 


19 


1.1875 


:37.92;3 


93 


1.1369 


27.728 


68 


1.0859 


17.534 


43 


1.03.57 


7.340 


18 


1.18.57 


37.516 


92 


1.1349 


27.321 


67 


1.08.38 


17.126 


43 


1.0:3:37 


6.932 


17 


1.1846 


37.108 


91 


1.1328 


26 913 


66 


1.0818 


16.718 


41 


1.0318 


6.524 


16 


1.1822 


36.700 


90 


1 . 1308 


26.. 5.05 


65 


1.0798 


16.310 


40 


1.0298 


6.116 


15 


1 1802 


36.292 


89 


1.1287 


26.098 


64 


1.0778 


15.902 


39 


1.0279 


5.T&9 


14 


1 1782 


35.884 


88 


1.1267 


25.690 


63 


1.07.58 


15.494 


38 


1.02.59 


5.301 


13 


1.1762 


35.476 


87 


1.1247 


35.282 


62 


1.07138 


15.087 


37 


1 .0239 


4.893 


13 


1.1741 


35.068 


86 


1 . 1226 


24.847 


61 


1.0718 


14.679 


36 


1.0220 


4.486 


11 


1.1721 


34.660 


85 


1.1206 


24.466 


60 


1.0697 


14.271 


35 


1.0200 


4.078 


10 


1.1701 


34.252 


84 


1.1185 


24.058 


59 


1 0677 


13.863 


34 


1 0180 


3.670 


9 


1.1681 


33.845 


83 


1.1164 


23.6.50 


58 


1.06.57 


13.456 


33 


1.0160 


3.262 


8 


1.1661 


33.437 


82 


1.1143 


23.242 


57 


1.0637 


13.049 


32 


1.0140 


3.8.54 


7 


1.1641 


33.029 


81 


1.1123 


22.834 


56 


1.0617 


12.641 


31 


1.0120 


3.447 


6 


1.16 


32.621 


80 


1.1103 


22.426 


.55 


1.0.597 


12.2:33 


30 


1 OHIO 


3.039 


5 


1.1.599 


32.213 


79 


1.1082 


22.019 


54 


1 0577 


11.825 


29 


1.0080 


1.631 


4 


1.1578 


31 805 


78 


1 1061 


21.611 


.53 


1.05.57 


11.418 


28 


1.0060 


1.224 


3 


1.1.5.57 


31.398 


77 


1.1041 


•.il.203 


52 


1.0,5:37 


11.010 


27 


1.0040 


.816 


2 


1.1.536 


;30.990 


76 


1 . 1020 


20.796 


51 


1.517 


10.602 


26 


1.0020 


.408 


1 



The FJiosjJhates of America. 



177 



TABLE SHOWING THE PRIXCIPAL APPARATUS 
REQUIRED IN "PHOSPHATE MINING" OR 

1 sand-bath. 

1 set fine sieves. 

1 iron mortar with pestle. 

Porcelain evaporating-dishes. 

Hydrometer for light liquids. 

Hydrometer for heavy^ liquids. 

Mohr's bui^ette with pinch-cock, 50 

c.c. in -jijy. 
Mohr's burette with pinch-cock, 100 

c.c. in \. 
Iron support for two burettes. 
10-inch lipped cylinders. 
Graduated cylinders, 100 c.c. 
Iron wire triangles. 
Pieces brass wire gauze, 6x6. 
Iron triiJods. 

Test-tubes, 5 and 6 inches. 
Test-tube stands. 
Desiccators. 
Triangular files. 
Round files. 
Funnel supports, wood, for four 

funnels. 
Eetort stands, iron, 3 ring-s. 
Quire filter-paper. 
24 4-ounce German tincture bottles. 
13 16 - ounce German tincture 

bottles. 
German glass tubing. 
Dozen glass stirrers. 
Horn spoons with spatulas. 
Rubber tubing for connections. 
Flasks, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16 ounces. 
1 carbonic-acid apparatus, Schrotter. 
Liebig's condenser, 20 inches. 
Condenser support. 
Gay-Lussac's burette, 50 c.c. in -jJg. 
Burette floats to fit Mohr's burettes. 
4 pipettes, volumetric, fixed, 10, 25, 

50, 100 c.c. 
4 pipettes, Mohr's graduated. 
5 10 50 100 c.c. 

divided in i^ ^V iV i 
1 Taylor's hand ore-crusher. 
Half-dozen boxes gummed labels, 
assorted sizes. 



AND CHEMICALS COMPRISING THE "OUTFIT" 
" FERTILIZER FACTORY ' LABORATORIES. 

Several packages of Schleicher and 
Schuell's washed and cut filters, 
7, 9 and 11 centimetres diameter. 

1 large Fletcher's blowpipe. 

1 dozen rubber tips for glass rods. 

1 steel forceps, 4| inches. 

1 air-bath, copper, 6x8 inches. 

10 grammes platinum foil. 

1 yard platinum wire. 

1 gross each wide-mouthed bottles, 
with corks, 1, 2, 4 ounces. 

Porcelain mortars, 5 inches, with 
pestle. 

1 pair paper-scissors. 

1 dozen royal Berlin crucibles, Nos. 
00 and 0, and covers. 

1 30-c.c. platinum crucible. 

1 100-c.c. platinum dish. 

Wash-bottles (pints). 

1 chemical balance (for rough 
weighing), capacity 5 ounces. 

1 set weights, 100 grammes down. 

2 paper scale thermometers, 100° 
and 200° C. 

Half-dozen each funnels, 2, 2^, 3, 4, 

5, 6 inches. 
2 dozen beakers with lip, assorted 

sizes. 
1 dozen 2-inch watch-glasses. 
1 6-inch water-bath, copper, with 

rings. 
1 glass alcohol lamp, 4 ounces. 
1 Berzelius alcohol-lamp with stand 

and rings. 
1 fine balance, 100 grammes 

capacity. 
1 set of fine weights, 100 grammes 

down. 
4 each volumetric flasks, marked 

100, 250, 500 c.c. 
6 litre flasks , glass-stoppered, 1000 

c.c. 
8 mixing cylinders, glass-stoppered, 

1000 c.c. 
1 nest Berzelius' beakers, 1 to 4. 
12 sheets each blue, red and yel- 
low test-paper. 



The Pliospliates of America. 



CHEMICALS. 



Acetic acid. 
Acetic acid, glacial. 
Alcohol (absolute). 
Alcohol (common). 
Amraonic carbonate. 
Amnionic chloride. 
Ammonic hydrate. 
Amnionic molybdate. 
Amnionic nitrate. 
Ammonic oxalate. 
Amnionic sulphocyanide. 
Amnionic sulphhydrate. 
Argentic nitrate. 
Baric carbonate. 
Baric chloride. 
Bromine water. 
Calcic chloride. 
Chlorine water. 
Citric acid. 

5 grammes coralline \ 

5 " methyl-orange | 

5 " phenolphthalein ) 

Distilled water. 
Ferric chloride. 
Ferrous sulphate (crystals). 
Fine white pure sand. 
Hydrochloric acid (concent.). 
Hydro-disodic phosphate. 



in- 
dica- 
tors. 



Indigo solution. 

Iron wire and plate. 

Magnesic chloride crystal. 

Magnesic suljihate. 

Nitric acid (concent.). 

Nitro - hydrochloric acid (aqua 

regia). 
Oxalic acid (crystals). 
Platinic chloride. 
Potassic carbonate (dry) 
Potassic chlorate. 
Potassic dichromate. 
Potassic ferricyanide. 
Potassic ferrocyanide. 
Potassic hydrate. 
Potassic permanganate (crystals). 
Potassic and sodic carbonates 

(mixed). 
Potassic sulphocyanide. 
Sodic acetate. 
Sodic carbonate. 
Sodic chloride. 
Sodic nitrate (crystals). 
Sulphuric acid (concent.). 
Sulphuretted hydrogen. 
Uranic acetate. 
Zinc, granular. 



TuE End. 



IISTDEX 



Acid Chambers. 
Arraneement of drips, windows and 

caps in ''- 

Construction of 93 

Dimensions of 9"^ 

Exit gases from 94 

General hints in management of. .93, 94 

Pressure of steam in 90 

Reactions of gases in 93 

Regulation of nitre supply in 93 

Sprengel pump in 90 

Thickness of lead for, and amount of 

space in ■ • ■ • 90 

Acid Phosphate of Lime. 

Composition of 107 

Production of, in the manufacture 

of superphosphate HI 

Acid siphon or "egg," Description 

of 98, 99 

Acid solution. Concentration of 130 

Acids and alkalies. Table for syste- 
matic analysis of 173 

Agricultural products, Value of, in 

U.S li 

Agriculture, Theory of scientific .... 9 
Air Supply. 
Importance of regulating, in sul- 
phuric acid manufacture 89 

Regulation of, in pyrite burners 88 

" " for burning brim- 
stone 88 

ALKALIES and acids, Table for system- 
atic analysis of 173 

Alumina and Iron. 
Combination of, in Florida phos- 
phates 154. 155 

Determination of oxides of 150-153 

Elimination of, from Florida phos- 
phates 78 

Estimation of, in raw phosphates. 150, 151 
Glaser's method of estimating... 152, 153 

In Florida phosphates 76, 78 

Ammonia. 

Citrate solution of 170 

Hydrate solution (normal) of 168 

Nitrate solution of 170 

Oxalate solution of 170 

Table showing strength of various 

solutions of 175 

Analysis. 

Determinations necessary in 141 

Divergence in, of phosphates. 26, 139, 140 

Of alkalies and acids. Table for 173 

" brimstone 162 

" chalk or limestone 163 

" fertilizers. Normal solutions use- 
ful in 167-171 



Analysis. 

Of Florida phosphates 77 

" phosphates. Volumetric 157-158 

" pyrites ores 159-161 

" raw phosphates 138, 144, 154 

" soils 1^ 

" sulphuric acid 16^ 

" superphosphates 155-157 

Preparation of sample for phos- 
phate "4 

Selected methods of 138 

Volumetric, of phosphates 157, 158 

Apatites. 
Average cost deliverad at Montreal 42 

" " of mining 40,11 

Canadian, see Canadian Apatites, 

Chemical composition of 35 

Combination of various bodies de- 
termined in phosphate 1^4 

Continuity of veins of 39 

Coste. Engene, on the origin of 

Canadian 36 

Dawson, Sir William, on Canadian. 35 

Geological aspect of Canadian 27 

In rocks of Laurentian period 27 

Methods of mining, in Canada..34, 40, 42 
Mines, Principal working of, in 

Canada 28 

Output of, from 1877 to 1890 43 

Probable origin of Canadian 35, 37, 38, 39 
Ratio of, to other rocks in Canadian 

mines 40 

Selling price of, in 1890 43 

Selwyn, A. R. C, on the origin of 

Canadian 36 

Transportation of — 42 

Values, Yearly, of 43 

Apparatus, List of chemical and 
other, chiefly required in "phos- 
phate mining" and " fertilizer fac- 
tory " laboratories 177 

Archaean rocks. Composition of 27 

Artesian wells in Florida 65 

Artificial heat. Evil effects of , when 
used to dry superphosphates 113 

Assimilability of phosphates 18-22 

Atomic weights, Table of 131 

Barium Chloride. 

Standard solution of 169 

Table showing strength or various 
solutions of 175 

Bartow as a phosphate-producing re- 
gion • 74 

Baume degrees compared with speci- 
fic gravity 173 

Boom in Florida phosphates 63. 



180 



Index. 



BoussiNGATJLT on the migration of 
phosphates in plants 17 

Brimstone. 

Air supply in burning 88 

Analysis of 162 

Cost of manufacturing rT2S04 from. 101 

In sulphuric acid manufacture 86 

Moisture, Determination of, in 162 

Possible yield of H.2SO4 from 102 

Sulphur, Determination of, in 162 

Calcining and drying Florida phos- 
phates 7i 

Calcining phosphates. Fallacy of, ex- 
posed 75 

Canadian Apatites. 

Chemical composition of 35 

Companies now engaged In mining. 28 

Cost of production of 42 

Dawson, Sir William, on 35 

Geological aspects of 27 

Methods of mining 29. 31, 40. 42 

Natural impediments in the way of 

mining in Canada 42 

Necessity of a change in the meth- 
ods of mining in Canada 44 

Occurrence of 27, 35 

Origin of 35-40 

Output of, mines from 1877 to 1890. . 43 

Principal working mines of 28 

Value of lands containing 29 

Veins of 39 

Wasteful methods of mining 42 

Canadian Phosphates 29-42 

Equipment necessary for mining of. 34 
Mining, Extravagant method of 42 

Carbonate of lime as an important 
ingredient in the manufacture of 

superphosphates 112 

Estimation of, in phosphates 145 

Carbonic Acid Gas. 

Estimation of, in phosphates 145 

Schrotter's apparatus for estimation 
of 146 

Cenozoic time 45 

Chalk or Limestone. 

Analysis of 163 

Determination of magnesia in 163 

Chamber Acid. 
For decomposition of phosphates, 

Table of quantity of 110 

In manufacture of phosphoric acid, 

Tableof 128 

SO3 and H2SO4 in, lable showing 
value of 108 

Chemical knowledge required in the 
manufacture of fertilizers Ill 

Chemicals, General list of those, 
chiefly required in phosphate an- 
alyses 178 

Cinders from pyrites burning. Value 
of 87 



Citrate. 
Insoluble P-^Os, Determination of, 

in superphosphates 156 

Soluble PnOs, Determination of, in 

superphosphates 157 

Soluble phosphates 111,112 

Clayey soils 11 

Combination of 
Iron and alumina in Florida phos- 
phates 154, 155 

Raw materials used in the manu- 
facture of superphosphate 125 

Various bodies determined in phos- 
phate analysis 154 

Combined water and organic matter 
in raw phosphates. Determination 
of 144 

Companies, Bogus, in Florida and 
their evil influence 82 

Companies now engaged in 

Canadian apatite mining 28 

Florida phosphate mining 80, 81, 82 

South Carolina phosphate mining, 55, 56 

Composition of 
Phosphoric acid solution of 45° B.. . 131 

Plants 13 

Principal phosphates 20 

Superphosphates as manufactured 
in United States . . . 126 

Concentration of acid solutions 130 

Condensing plant for the fertilizer 
factory 134-137 

Construction of fertilizer works. 1V3, 124 

Contracts, Proposed modifications 
in present forms of making 141, 142 

Conversion of thermometric degrees 165 

CoosAW Mining Co., History and 
earnings of 58-58 

Copper. 

Determination of, in pyrites 159 

Eistimation of, as subsulphocyanide 
in pyrites ores and residues 161 

Coralline, as an indicator 167 

Corenwinder, on the migration of 
phosphates in plants 17 

Cost op Production of 

Canadian apatites 42 

Florida phosphates 74, 78 

High-grade superphosphates 133 

Phosphoric acid 133 

South Carolina phosphates 59, 60 

Sulphuric acid 104s 105 

CosTE, Eugene, on the origin of 
Canadian apatites 36 

Crops, Percentage of mineral matter 
in the U. 3 14-16 

Crust of the earth. Geological divis- 
ions of the 27 

Dawson, Sir W., on probable ori- 
gin of Canadian apatite 35 



Index. 



181 



Decomposition of phosphates, Table 
of quantity of chamber acid re- 
quired for 110 

Decomposition of rocks 10 

Defects in the raw material used in 
superphosphate manufacture and 
how to remedy them 113 

Degrees Baunie compared with spe- 
cific gravity 173 

Dhtosits. 
Of nodular and amorphous phos- 
phates 15 

Of phosphate in America 25 

Development of Florida phosphate 
deposits. . , 63 

Difficulties in the manufacture of 
superphosphate 112 

Directions for manufacturing super- 
phosphate 123-126 

Discovery op 
Charleston phosphates, Proicssor 

Holmes on 45 

Mineral deposits of phosphates 19 

Phosphate in Florida 63 

The fertilizing value of phosphates. 19 

Disintegration of Phosphates. 

In the factory 117-123 

In the soil 22 

Liebig's theory of 22 

Divergence in analysis of phos 
phates -° 

Dredges, Mining by means of float- 
ing 74 

Dredging system in South Caro- 
lina 51,52 

Drift deposits in South Carolina... 73, 75 

Drips, Arrangement of, in manufac- 
ture of H2SO4 92 

Drying. 
And calcining Florida phosphates. .. 74 

Phosphates in South Carolina 53, 54 

Washing and, of phosphates 72 

Earth's crust. Geological divisions 
of the 27 

Eocene era 45 

Farmer, Relative value of phos- 
phate to the 23 

Fertilizer analysis. Normal solu- 
tions useful in 167-171 

Fertilizer Industry. 
Molecular weights of substances 

used in 171, 172 

Per cent, composition of substances 

u=ed in PI, 172 

Symbols of substances used in the, 

171, 172 

Fertilizer Works. 
Amouni of fluorine in gases from. . 134 
Fume condenssr for. Sketch of . .135-137 

General outline and plan of 123, 124 

]N ature of the fumes from 134 



Fertilizer Works. 

Noxious fumes from 134 

Fertilizers. 
Chemical knowledge required in the 

manufacture of HI 

ManufacturcKS of, in Souih Caro- 
lina, List of 60 

Production of, in South Carolina.. 60, 61 
Fertilizing value of phosphates. Dis- 
covery of 19 

Florida. 

Artesian wells in 65 

Mining law in 75, 76 

Topographical aspect of 64 

Florida Phosphate. 

Analysis, Typical, of 77 

Boom in 63 

Calcining, Fallacy of 78 

Chemical composition of a sample 

of 108 

Companies now engaged in min- 
ing 80-82 

Composition, Typical, of 72, 77 

Cost of production of 71-78 

Deceptive indications of deposits of. 71 

Deposits, Development of 63 

Discovery of deposits of 63 

Drying and calcining. Methods of.. . . 71 
Exploration, Systematic, of de- 
posits of 51 

Formation of, Theories on the 66-69 

Geological aspect of, deposits 66-69 

Iron and alumina, Elimination of, 

from 78 

Iron and alumina in 76-78 

Lands and their inflated values 63-80 

Maps of, deposits.. . 78 

Mining, by floating dredges 74 

Pebble mining. Methods of 73, 74 

Physical aspect of. Genera) 74, 76 

Pockety nature of deposits of 71 

Rock mining, Methods of 77, 78 

Speculative dealings in, lands 63-80 

Suggestions for working, deposits 78 

Washed and dried 72 

Florida Phosphate Mines. 
Companies now working, Parti 1 

list of 80-82 

Extent and aspect of 70 

In Lakeland and neighborhood 74 

In Peace River and its tributaries. . 73 

In pebble regions 73 

Jeffrey Manufacturing Co.'s plant 

toi working 78 

Negro labor in 83 

Suggestions for working 78 

Thickness of phosphate stratum in. 70-73 
Fluorine. 
Amount of, in gases from fertilizer 

works 134-137 

Estimation of, in raw phosphates... 119 



182 



Index. 



Formation. 

Of the globe 10 

" soils 11 

Frisbee-Lucop phosphate mill 120-123 

Fume condenser for fertilizer works, 
Sketch of 135-137 

Fumes from fertilizpr works 13i-137. 

Furnace, Varieties of, in pyrites 
burning 86 

Gay-Lussac towers, Construction 
and use of 91, 95 

Geological. 
Canadian apatite deposits, aspects 

of 27 

Classification of tertiary rocks.. .15, 4fi 

Division of the earth's crust 27 

Florida phosphate deposits, aspects 

of 66-69 

Maps of Florida phosphate deposits 78 
South Carolina phosphate deposits, 
aspects of , 48 

Glaser's method of estimating iron 
and alumina in raw phosphates, 

152, 153 

Globe, Formation of the 10 

Glover Towers, Construction and 

use of ,. 95-101 

Packmgof 97 

Grain crop. Percentage of phos- 
phoric acid in 15 

Griffin phosphate mill 118-120 

Grinding phosphates. Various me- 
thods of 117-123 

Hay Crop. 
Percentage of mineral matter in the. 16 
Phosphoric acid in the 16 

High-grade Superphosphates. 

Arguments in favor of 127 

Chemical theory and desirability of 

manufacture of 123 

Cost of manufacturing 133 

Manufacture of 132 

Plant used in manufacture of 132 

Practical examples in the manufac- 
ture of 123 

Tables for the manufacture of... 128, 131 

132 

Holmes, Professor, on the discovery 
of Charleston phosphates 43 

Hydrochloric acid table 176 

Indications of Florida phosphate 
deposits. Deceptive 71 

Iron. 

Estimation of, in limestone 163 

" " " phosphates 151 

" " "pyrites 161 

Titration by permanganate of 171 

Iron and Alumina. 
Combination of, in Florida phos- 
phates 151, l.iS 



Iron and Alumina, 
Elimination of. from Florida phos- 
phates ' 78 

Estimated by Glaser's method.. 152, 153 
Estimation of ,in raw phosphates, 150, 151 

In Florida phosphates 76, 78 

In phosphates 21, 139 

In superphosphates 112 

Oxides of. Determination of 150-153 

Jeffrey Manufacturing Company's 
plant for mining, v,'ashing and 
drying Florida phosphates (illus- 
trated) 78, 79 

Lakeland, Florida, Phosphate mines 
in ';4 

Laurenti an period 27 

LiEBiG'S theory of disintegrating 
phosphates 22 

Limb. 

Estimation of, in limestone 163 

Estimation of, in raw phosphates. . . 153 
Insoluble siliceous matter in. Deter- 
mination of 163 

Iron in chalk or. Determination of. 163 
Magnesia in. Determination of ... . 163 
Mineral phosphate of. Action of sul- 
phuric acid on ... 108 

Limestone, Analysis of 163 

Limy soils 12 

Low-grade phosphates. Utilization 
of 128 

Magnesia. 
In limestone or chalk. Determina- 
tion of 163 

In raw phosphates. Determination 

of 154 

Mixture, Preparation of 170 

Manufacture of 

High-grade superphosphates 132-134 

Phosphoric acid 1 29-133 

Sulphuric acid 84-102 

Superphosphates 106-128 

Map of 

Florida phosphate deposits 78 

South Carolina phosphate deposits. 48 

Measures and weights of tne me- 
trical system 165 

Methyl-orange as an indicator 167 

Metrical system. Measures and 
weights of the 165 

Mill. 

Frisbee-Lucop 121 

GriiHn phosphate 118-120 

Sturtevant, phosphate 117, 118 

Mineral. 
Deposits of phosphates. Discovery of. 19 
Matters in the crops of the United 

States 14-16 

Phosphates of lime. Action of sul- 
phuric acid on 108 



Index. 



183 



Mining Law. 

In South Carolina 56-57 

In Florida 75, 73 

Miocene era 45 

Mixers used iu production of super- 
phosphates 124 

Moisture in raw phosphates, Deter- 
mination of 144 

Molecular weiehts of substances 
used in the fertilizer industry... 171, 172 

Negro labor in Florida 83 

Neutral phosphate of lime, Chemi- 
cal composition of 107 

Nitre in sulphuric acid manufac- 
ture 85, 92 

Nitric Acid. 

In sulphuric acid manufacture 85 

Table 176 

Nodular deposits of phosphate of 
lime 45 

North Star mine, Canada, Descrip- 
tion of the 30 

Organic matter. Estimation of com- 
bined water and, in phosphate an- 
alysis 144 

Origin of phosphates 17,78 

Output of 
Canadian apatite mines. 1877 to 1890. 43 
Superphosphates in South Caro- 
lina 60. 61 

Oxides of Iron and Alumina. 
Determination of, in South Carolina 

phosphates 150-153 

Estimated by Glaztr's method.. 152. 153 

Oxygen in sulphuric acid manufact- 
ure 85 

Packing. 

Of Gay-Lussac Tower 95 

Of Glover tower 97 

Peace River, Florida, Phosphate 
mines in 73 

Phenolphthalein as an indicator. . . 167 

Phosphates. 
Action of sulphuric acid on insoluble 

varieties of 107. 108 

Alumina and iron, of 21, 139 

Amorphous and nodular. Deposits of 45 
Analysis of, Chemicals required in, 178 
Analysis of. Determinations to be 

made in 144 

Analysis of. Divergence in. ..23. 139, 140 

Analysis of. Methods of 1 ;8. 144, 154 

Analysis, "Volumetric, of 157, 158 

Analytical list ot best known 20 

Analyzing. Selected methods of 

138. 144-154 

AssimiJability of 18-22 

Buying and selling, Contracts for. . . 

141. 142 
Canadian 29. 42 



Phosphates. 
Chamber acid reauired to decom- 
pose. Table showing quantity of. . 110 
Chemical composition of a sample 

of Florida 108 

Citrate soluble Ill, 112 

Combination of various bodies de- 
termined in 154 

Commercial value of 25, 138. 149 

Composition of the principal 20 

Consumption of. World's approxi- 
mate 138 

Contracts for buying and selling.... 

141, 142 

Cost of production of Florida 74-78 

Co^t of production of South Caro- 
lina 59-6D 

Decomposition of. Table showing 
quantity of chamber acid of any 

strength for 110 

Deposits of. in America 25 

Discovery of fertilizing value of 19 

Discovery of mineral d3posits of 19 

Disintegration of, in the factory. .117- 123 

Disintegration of, in the soil 22 

Disintegration of, Liebig's theory of 22 
Drying of, Methods of, in South 

Carolina 53, 54 

Farmer, Relative value of, to the 23 

Florida, aee Florida Phosphate. 
Fluorine in raw. Determination of.. 149 

Grinding, Methods of 117-123 

Iron and alumma, Determination of, 

in 150,151,152,153 

Iron and alumina in Florida 151, 155 

" 21,139 

Iron in. Estimation of 151 

Liebig's theory on raw 22 

Lime in raw, Estimation of 153 

Location of deposits of 77 

Low-grade, Utilization of 128 

Magnesia in raw. Determination of, 154 

Mill, Frisbee-Lucop's 121 

Mill, Griffin's 118, 123 

Mill, Sturtevant's 117, 118 

Moisture in raw. Determination of. 144 
Nodular and amorphous. Deposits of. 45 
Of lime, mineral, Action of sulphuric 

acid on 108 

Of lime, neutral. Chemical compo- 
sition of 107 

Organic matter. Determination of 

combined water and, in raw 144 

Origin of 17 

Phosphoric anhydride in raw. De- 
termination of 148 

Plants, Migration of, in 17 

Raw, used in various soils 23, 24 

Sampling, at the mines 142, 14^ 

before shipment 143, 144 

Selling and buying. Contracts for.lll. Ii2 



184 



Index. 



Phosphates. 
Siliceous, insoluble, matter, Deter- 
mination of, in raw 117 

Soil, Necessi ty for, on the 17 

Soil, Reversion of, in the 23 

Soluble and precipitated 21 

South Carolina, see South Carolina.. 
Sulphuric anhydride in raw, Deter- 
mination of 117 

Tertiary strata. Workable strata of. 46 
Value of, to the farmer. Relative . . 23 

"Volumetric analysis of 157, 158 

Water, combined, and organic mat- 
ter, Dstermination of, in raw 144 

World's approximate consumption 

of 138 

Phosphoric Acid. 
Calculations connected with the 

manufacture of 132 

Chamber acid required in manufac- 
ture of. Table of 128 

Chemical composition of 107 

Commercial value of. Fixing 138, 139 

Concentration of weak solutions of. 130 

Cost of manufacturing 133 

Determination. Volumetric, of 157-159 
Gases produced in manufacture of. 

Volume of 88 

Grain crop, Percentage of , in 15 

Hay crop, Percentage of, in 16 

High-grade superphosphates. Table 
of quantities of phosphoric acid re- 
quired in the manufacture of 131 

Manufacture of, on the large scale 

from low-grade ores 129-133 

Plant required in manufacture of, 

129, 130 
Solution of 45° B., Composition of.. 131 
Solutions of. Concentration of weak 130 

Solutions of. Strengths of 174 

Straw, Percentage of, in 15 

Superphosphate manufacture, set 

free in the Ill 

Superphosphate manufacture. Table 
of quantities of phosphoric acid re- 
quired in 131 

Table for use in manufacture of 

high-grade superphosphates 131 

Table showing strength of various 

solutions of 171 

Tri basic. Composition of 107 

Volumetric determination of 157-159 

Phosphoric Anhydride 106 

Chemical composition of 106 

Determination of, in raw phos- 
phates 148 

Determination of, in superphos- 
phates 155-157 

Determination of, voluraetrically.. 

157, 158 



Phosphoric Anhydride. 
Determination of water-soluble, in 
superphosphates 155 

Plant growth, Elements of 12 

Plant Required in Manufacture of 

Phosphoric acid 129, 130 

Sulphuric acid 90, 91 

Superphosphate 123, 124 

Plants. 

Composition of 13 

Life of 13 

Migration of phosphates in 17 

Pliocene era 45 

Pressure of steam in sulphuric acid 
chambers 90 

Pyrite burners. Regulation of air 
supply In 88 

Pyrites. 

Air supply in burning 88 

Analysis of 153, 161 

Average composition of 103 

Burning, Furnace used in 86 

Cinders from burning. Value of 87 

Copper, Determmation of 159, 161 

Insoluble siliceous matter. Deter- 
mination of 160 

Iron in. Determination of 161 

Methods of sampling 159 

Residues, Utilization of 87 

Samplings of, for analysis 159 

Sulphur in, Determination of 160 

Sulphuric acid manufacture. Use of, 
in 86 

Pyroxene, Occurrence and charac- 
teristics of 29 

Qv/EBEC, Canada, Apatite deposits of. 27 

Reactions in sulphuric acid manu- 
facture 85 

Rocks. 

Archaean 27 

Decomposition of 10 

Limestone, in Florida 65 

Of the Laurentian period 27 

Phosphates, of S. Carolina 46 

Tertiary, Classification of 45, 46 

Varieties of 10 

Sampling. 

Phosphate at the mines 143 

Phosphate before shipment 144 

Pyrites for analysis 159 

Sandy soils 11 

Scheurer-Kestner's experiments 
with the Glover tower 100, 101 

Schrotter's CO2 apparatus 146 

Selling prices of South Carolina 
phosphate 60 

Selwyn, a. R. C, on tLe origin of 
Canadian apatites 36 

Siliceous matter, insoluble. 

In limestone, Dfetermination of 163 

In pyrites. Determination of 160 



Index. 



185 



Siliceous matter, insoluble. 
In raw phosphates. Determination 
of 147 

Soil. 
Disintpgratioa of phosphates in the. 22 

Formation of the 11 

Limy 12 

Raw phosphates, Use of, in various, 

23, 21 
Varieties of 11 

South Carolina. 
As a pioneer in the fertilizer in- 
dustry 60 

Drift deposits in 73, 75 

Drying of phosphates, Methods of .53, 54 

Fertilizers, Production of, in 61 

Manufacture of fertilizers in 60 

Manufacturers of fertilizers in. List 

of 69 

Mining law in 56, 57 

South Carolina Phosphate. 
Companies now engaged in mining. S5, 56 

Continuity of, deposits 48 

Cost of production of 59, 60 

Deposits 46-62 

" Unesploited, of 61 

Dredging scoops used in mining. . .51, 62 
Excavating and exporting. Methods 

of 53, 54 

Exploring, Methods of, deposits ... 49 
Extent of deposits near Charleston. 4S 
Geological formation of, deposits. . . 48 
Holmes, Professor, on the discovery 

of. deposits 46 

Map of, deposits 48 

Mining of. Methods of 53-.i5 

Nature of material overlying 49, 50 

Oxides of iron and alumina in, De- 
termination of 150-153 

Pit sinking in 49 

Production of. Annual 54 

River and land 51 

Rocks 46 

Specific gravity of 52 

Table of annual production of . . 54 

Thickness of strata in, deposits 49 

Typical sections of, deposits 50. 51 

Unexploited areas of 61 

South Carolina Supis-rphosphates, 
Output of 60, 61 

Specific Gravity. 
Comparison of degrees Baum6 with 173 

How to determine 166 

Of J'outh Carohna phosphates 52 

Speculative dealing in Florida phos- 
phate land 63, 80 

Sprengel pump in acid chambers 90 

Standard solutions 167- 170 

Steam pressure in sulphuric acid 
chambers 90 

Stoichiometry 165 



Straw. 

Per centage of mineral matter in 14 

Percentage of phosphoric acid in . . . 15 

Sturtevant's phosphate mill 117, 118 

Subsui.phocyanide, Estimation of 
copper as, in pyrites ores and resi- 
dues ... 161 

Sulphur. 

Estima'Jon of, in brimstone 162 

" " in pyrites 160 

Sulphuric Acid. 
Action of, on mineral phosphate of 

lime .' 108 

Air supply in manufacture of 88, 89 

Analysis of 163 

Chambers 90-93 

Chemistry of manufacturing pro- 
cess of 84-90 

Composition of pure 102 

Cost of manufacture of, from py- 
rites and brimstone 104, 105 

Gay Lussac and Glover towers in 

the manufacture of 91-101 

Manufacture of 84-102 

" " Early methods of.. >^4 

Manufacture of. Plant required in.90, 91 

Nitre in manufacture of 85 

Nitre supply in. Regulation of 92 

Oxygen in manufacture of 85 

Plant required in manufacture of .90, 91 

Pumping siphon, or "egg" 98, 99 

Pyrites in manufacture of 86 

Reactions in manufacture of 85 

Table for preparing various strengths 

of, by adding water 171 

Table showing value of chamber 
acid in SO3 and HoSO^ according 

to Baumt' 108 

Yields of, in actual practice from 

pyrites and brimstone 102 

Sulphuric Anhydride. 
Determination of, in raw phos- 
phates 147 

Table showing value of chamber 

acid in 108 

Superphosphate Manufacture. 
Chemical equations involved in . . . 109 

Chemistry of ... 106 

Superphosphates. 
Acid phosphate of lime. Production 

of, in the manufacture of Ill 

Analysis of 155-158 

Chemical theory of high-grade, man- 
ufacture . 126 

Citrate soluble. Water and 112 

Composition of, as manufactured in 

United States 126 

Composition of. Variability in 106 

Consumption, World's, of 138 

Cost of producing high-grade 132 

Cost of transportation of 127 



18U 



Index. 



Superphosphates . 
Desirability of high-grade, manufac- 
ture 126 

Determination of citrate insoluble 

PiOjin 156 

Determination of citrate soluble 

PsOsin 1^ 

Determination of total PiOa in 157 

Determination of water soluble 

PjOsin 155, 156 

Difficulties in the manufacture of.. 112 

Drying, Methods of 113 

Equations involved in manufactur- 
ing 1C9 

Examples of scientific and accurate 

methods of manufacturing... 114, 115 
High-grade, Arguments in favor of. 127 
" " Cost of Manufacturing. 133 
" Manufacture of.... 126, 132 
" " Plant used in manufac- 
ture of 132 

" " Practical examples in | 
the manufacture of. ?29 
" " Tables for the manufac- ' 

tureof 128, 131, 132 

Iron and alumina in i;2 

Manufacture of 106-128 | 

" " Calculations eni- 

ploj'cdin 110, 111 

" Difficulties in 112 

" " Directions for... 123-126 

" *' Equations involved 

in 109 

" " Examples of scien- 
tific 114, 115 

" " high-grade l.'52-134 

" " Plant required in, 

123, 124 
Merchantable, Methods of making, 

dry and 113 

Mixers used in the production of... 121 
Mixture of the raw materials in the 

manufacture of 123-125 

Moisture in. Determination of 155 

Output of, in South Carolina 60, 61 

Phosphates, mono-calcic, and di- 
calcic. Production of, in the manu- 
facture of Ill 

Phosphoric acid set free in the man- 

f acture of Ill 

Phosphoric anhydride in. Determi- 
nation of 155-157 

Plant required in manufacture of, 

123, 124 
Raw Material, Combination of, 

used in the manufacture of 125 

Raw Material, Defects In the, 
used in the manufacture of, and 

how to remedy them 113 

Raw Material, Mixture of, used in 
the manufacture of 123-125 



Superphosphates. 
Raw Material, Qualities of, in man- 
ufacturing Ill 

Sampling, Method of 155 

Table showing the quantity of 
chamber acid of any strength re- 
quired to decompose any phos- 
phate of known composition 110 

Water and citrate soluble 112 

Symbols of substances used in the 

fertilizer industry 171, 172 

Tables. 

For preparing sulphuric acid of 
various strengths by adding water 174 

For systematic analysis of alkalies 
and acids 173 

Of atomic weights 164 

Showing amount of chamber acid of 
various strengths required in the 
manufacture of phosphoric acid 
from natural phosphates in rela- 
tion to the production of high- 
grade "supers" 128 

Showing annual production of Ca- 
nadian apatite 43 

Showing annual production of South 
Carolina phosphate 54 

Showing quantities of phosphoric 
acid required in the manufacture 
of high-grade superphosphates 
from mineral phosphates 131 

Showing quantity of chamber acid 
of various strengths required to 
decompose any phosphates of 
known composition UQ 

Showing strengths of various solu- 
tions of ammonia 175 

Showing strengths of various solu- 
tions of barium chloride 175 

Showing strengths of various solu- 
tions of hydrochloric acid 176 

Showing strengths of various solu- 
tions of nitric acid 176 

Showing strengths of various solu- 
tions of phosphoric acid 174 

Showing the value of chambsr acid 
in SO3 and II2SO4, according to 

Baume 108 

Tertiary. 

Age, Characteristics of 45 

" Subdivision of 45 

Rocks, Geological ciassificaion of. 45, 46 

Strata, Workable phosphate de- 
posits of 46 

Thermometric degrees, Conversion 

of 165 

Tillman, Governor, on the Coosaw 

Mining Co . 56 58 

Topographical aspect of Florida 64 

Tribasic phosphoric acid. Chemical 

composition of 107 



Index. 



187 



Uranium acetate solution 169 

Values of asricultural products 14 

Volumetric estimation of phosphor- 
ic acid 157-159 

Water, combined, and organic mat- 
ter in raw phosphates. Determina- 
tion of 144 



Washing and drying Florida phos- 
phates 72 

Weights. 
Measures and. Metrical system of. . 1G5 
Table of atomic 161 

Wells, Artesian, in Florida 65 

Windows in sulphuric acid chambers 92 



ABYERTISEPiS' INDEX. 



Abel's Mining Accidents and Their Prevention - 
American Ore Machine Co. .... 

Beckett Foundry & Machine Co. 

Bradley Fertilizer Co. ..... 

Chism's Mining Code of the Republic of Mexico - 
Eimer & Amend ...... 

Endlich's Manual of Qualitative Blow-Pipe Analysis 

Engineering and Mining Journal 

Frisbee-Lucop Mill Co. ... - - 

Harrington & King Perforating Co. 

Heil, Henry Chemical Co. .... 

Howe's Metallurgy of Steel .... 

Hunt's Chemical and Geological Essays 

Hunt's New Basis for Chemistry ... 

Hunt's Physiology and Physiography 

Hunt's Systematic Mineralogy . . . . 

Jeffrey Manufacturing Co. .... 

Krom, S. R. 

Kunz's Gems and Precious Stones of North America 
Lawrence Machine Co. ..... 

Ledoux & Co. ...... 

Mason Regulator Co. ..---- 

Mecklenburg Iron Works .... 

Norwalk Iron Works Co. . . - . - 

Peters' Modern American Methods of Copper Smelting 
Poole, Robert & Son Co. ..... 

Richards & Co. ...... 

Scientifit'. Publishing Co. . . . - . 

Stetefeldt's Llxiviation of Silver Ores - 
Sturtevant Mill Co. - 

Trenholm, P. C. 

Volk &Murdock Iron Works .... 

Wedding's Basic Bessemer Process - 



Page. 
xiv 
vii 
xvii 
ix 
iv 
xi 
vi 



1 

xi 

xiii 

xxii 

xxiii 

xxiv 

XXV 

iii 

xiii 

XX 

xix 

V 
XV 

xiii 

XV 

xviii 
xvi 
xiii 

xxvi 
viii 

XV 

xix 
iii 

X 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 




Metals of All Kinds Punched to Any Size 
and Thickness Required. 



PERPOEATED TIN AND BRASS OP ALL SIZES. 



PEBFOBAIOBS OF ALL METALS FOB USE IN ORE STAMPING 
AND DBFS SIN a MACHINEBF. 

For Coal and Ore Separators, Mining and Smelting Works, 

Fixed and Movable Screens, Reduction and Concentrating Works, Etc. 

Jigs, Trommels, Washers and Heavy Steel and Iron Plates and 

Sizers of all Kinds. Cylinders for Screening Ore, 

In Stamp Batteries. Coal, Stone, Phosphates, Etc. 



STAMP BATTERY SCREENS OF ALL KINDS AND SIZES 



PERFORATED FILTER 
PRESS PLATES, 

For Parafflne Wax, Cotton- 
Seed Oil, Sugar and 
other purposes. 



— OF— 

RUSSIA IRON, 

STEEL 

AND 

ALUMINUM OR 
MANGANESE BRONZE. 



Special Screen Plates 

To Withsrand Action ot 

Acidulated Mine Water, 

With Hardness and 
life of best steel. 



lEF" OORRESPOIIDENOE SOLICITED. Prices and Samples on Application. 



THE HARRINGTON & KING PERF. CO., 

Maiu Office and Works, 222 and 226 North Union St., 

CHICAGO, ILL., U. S. A. 
EASTERN OFFICE, No. 281 PEARL STREET, NE\r YORK. 



jj ADVERTISEME^TS. 



Mining J" ^ 



RICHARD P. ROTHWELL, 0. E., M. E., Editor. 

ROSSITER W. RAYMOND, Ph, D,, M. E., Special Contributor. 
SOPHIA BRAEUNLICH, Business Manager. 



The Engineering and Mining Journal is conceded to be 
" the best mining paper in the world." Its reports, criticisms on 
the technical information it gives, its market reports, and its 

Eeerless and impartial criticisms of things calculated to injure 
igitimate mining investments have gained the approval and 
confidence of the entire mining industry. 

Gives everything new and valuable to the Engineer, the 
Miner, the Metallurgist, the Investor, and the general reader 
who desires to understand 

THE FOUNDATIONS OF WEALTH, 

how metals and minerals are produced, manufactured and used. 



PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. 



BEST A.I>VEItTISIlVO JMEZrHUlM. 

The Largest Circulation of any Technical Paper 
in America. 

SUBSCRIPTION, INCLUDING POSTAGE: 

Weekly Edition (which includes the Export Edition), for the United States, 
Mexico, and Canada, $1.00 per annum ; |2.25 for six months ; all other countries in 
the postal union, $5.00. 

Monthly Export Edition, all countries, $2.50 gold value per annum. 



THE SOIENTinO PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

27 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. m 




CHARLESTON, S. C, 

MANUFACTURERS OF 

Machinery for Washing, Pulverizing and 
Manipulating Phosphate Rock. 



ENGINES, BOILERS AND MACHINERY, 



ETC., ETC. 



PHOSPHATE MACHINERY, 

OF EVERY DESCRIPTION, 

-FOR- 

ROCK AND PEBBLE 
PHOSPHATE. 

WE FURNISH 

ELEVATORS, CONVEYORS, 

CRUSHERS, WASHERS, 

SCREENS, DRYERS, 
ETC., ETC. 




We have equipped some of the largest Phosphate 
plants in the country. Will furnish plans and estimates 
on complete outfit, or any parts that may be desired. 



THE JEFFREY MFG. GO.,, 

COLUMBUS, O. 



IV ADVERTISEMENTS. 



THE MINING CODE 



REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 



WITH THE 



Eegulations for the Organization of the Mining Deputations and the 

Schedule for the Levying of Pees and Dues, with all the 

Latest Official Circulars and Decisions of the Mining 

Section of the Ministry of Public Works and 

with the Laws of June 6th, 1887, upon 

the Taxation of Mines and their 

Products, the Goncesvion of 

Mining Territory and 

the Purchase of a 

Process for the 

Treatment 

of Ores. 

TRANSLATED FROM THE OFFICIAL EDITION IN THE ORIGINAL SPANISH. 

BY 

RICHARD E. CHISM, 

MINING ENGINEER, 
MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS. 



THE SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

27 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



LEDOUX & CO., 

Analytical and Advising Chemists 



-AND- 



Chemical Engineers. 



EXPERT EXAMINATIONS of Phosphate and other 
Mineral Properties. 



PROFESSIONAL ADVICE regarding the manufacture and manipulation 
of FERTILIZERS, treatment of rock, and valuation of fertilizing 

MATERIALS. 

PLANS and SPECIFICATIONS for the erection of plants for the manufac- 
ture of fertilizers, acid phosphates, and sulphuric acid. 

ANALYSES of phosphate rock, marls, earths, raw fertilizing materials, 
mixed fertilizers, sulphuric acid, pyrites, and pyrites cinder. Our long 
experience in this branch of work justifies us in guaranteeing prompt 
and accurate returns. 

CONTRACTS by the month or year for professional advice and analytical 
work. 

PRICES will be furnished on application, and will be made as low as com- 
patible with accurate work. 



LABORATORIES AND OFFICES: 

NO. 9 CLIFF STREET, NEW YORK. 



VI ABVERTISEMENTS. 



M^nsrxjA^L 

OF 



(jDALITATIYE BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS 

AND 

DETERMINATIVE MINERALOGY. 

BY 

F. M. ENDLICH, s. N.D., 

MINING ENGINEER AND METALLURGIST, 
LATE MINERALOGIST SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, AND UNITED STATES GEOLOQICAL 
AND GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE TERRITORIES. 



Bound in Cloth. Illustrated. Price S^.OO. 



This work has been specially prepared for the use of all students in this 
great department of chemical science. The difficulties which beset begin- 
ners are borne in mind, and detailed information has been given concern- 
ing the various manipulations. All enumerations of species as far as pos- 
sible have been carried out in alphabetical order, and in the determinative 
tables more attention has been paid to the physical characteristics of 
substances under examination than has ever yet been done in a work of this 
kind. To a compilation of all the blowpipe reactions heretofore recognized 
as correct the author has added a number of new one^ not previously pub- 
lished. The entirearrangement of the volume is an original one, and to the 
knowledge born of an extensive practical experience the author has added 
everything of value that could be gleaned from other sources. The book 
cannot fail to find a place in the library or workshop of almost every student 
and scientist in America. 



Tj^lBILiE of COnSTTEN-TS. 

Chapter I.— Appliances and Reagents required for Qualitative Blowpipe Analysis. 
Chapter II. — Methods of Qualitative Blowpipe Analysis. 

Chapter III. — Tables giving Reactions for the Oxides of Earth and Minerals, 
chapter IV.— Prominent Blowpipe Reactions for the Elements and their 
Principal Mineral Compounds. 
Chapter V.— Systematic Qualitative Determination of Compounds. 
Chapter Vi.— Determinative Tables and their Application. 



THE SCIENTIFIC PDBLISHING COMPANY, 

27 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



VII 



INAROD DRYPDLVERIZER 

THE NAROD DRY AND WET GRANUIATOR. 









« 



^ <=) m o « ,7^ 



g g H ^ g p § 



I 






CQ 



V. L. RICE, Patentee. 




!Z5 
O 

oo 

lp 

^ '^ f^ l-rl 

cc F 'z; 3 ^ 

1^ p, 'Z'. « cc 

i^ IS ttl 






o 

M 



Pulverizer produces from 20 to 200 mesh fineness. Granulalor from size of wheat 
berry to 20 mesh. Botti mills fed in sizes one-inch cube and under. Deliver finished 
and uniforoi product through screen into hopper below. Only wearing parts are 
rolls and ring, which are made of besD chilled carbonized iron, dense and fiber- 
less, hence durable. 



PERFECT PRESERVATION OF GRANULATION. NO TAIL- 
INGS. NO REGRINDING. NO SLIME. ANY DEGREE OF 
FINENESS OBTAINABLE FINENESS REGULATED 
BY SIZE MESa OF SCREEN IN KILL. 

Capacity: Hard Quartz, 2!^ to 3 ; Phosphates, Cements, etc., 3^ to 4 tons per hour. 

Only 15 to 20 Horse Power Required. Weight of Each Mill, 5,600 Lbs. 

The heavier parts can be made suitable for mountain transportation. 



TESTIMONIAL LETTER (EXTRACT). 

Wilmington, N. C, Oct. 21, 1891. 
American Ore Machinery Co., No. 1 Broadway, New York: 

Gentlemex: After ovor nine months' experience with the Narod Mill, I think 
it by far the best and most economical Phosphate Grinder on the market. I have 
not known it to do less than S\4 tons, and under favorable conditions 4 tons per 
hour. The Mill does not require 20 horse power, runs smooth without heating, and 
has never broken down. Yours truly, C. E. BORDEN, 

Supt. Navassa Guano Co. 



AMERICAN ORE MACHINERYCO, 

1 Broadway, New York, N. Y , U S. A. 



■VIII ADVERTISEMENTS. 



The Lixiviation of Silver Ores 

WITH 

Hyposulphite Solutions. 

BY CARL A. STETEFELDT. 



In Cloth, Illustrated. Price, - - $5.00. 



Notices and Opinions. 

" We can unreservedly recommend this work." — Mexican Financier. 

Prof. Safford, of the Vanderbilt University, writes: "Mr. Stetefeldt has 
given us a most useful work and one well up with the times." 

Prof. Comstock, of the University of Illinois, says : " There is a crying need 
of more works like it upon cognate subjects." 

" It is in every respect a model of what such a book should be and is another 
illustration of German thoroughness." — Journal of Analytical Chemistry. 

Prof. Egi.eston, of the Columbia College School of Mines, writes: "The 
book is a very valuable contribution to our knowledge of teaching, and I shall take 
great pleasure in recommending it to students, metallurgists and others." 

" It is particularly valuable for its descriptions of the chemistry of the process, 
in which the older works are woefully deficient. It gives all the facts, apparently 
which one engaged in milling ore by the process should know." — Mining Industry. 

Prof. Hofman, of the Dakota School of Mines, writes: "I have no hesita- 
tion in saying that the ' Lixiviation of Silver Ores ' is the best existing work upon 
the subject, and will, undoubtedly become the text-book for specialists in this in- 
interesting field." 

Prof. Sharpless, of the Houghton Mining School, writes : "One who has 
occasion to read up the recent advances of lixiviation processes will appreciate the 
work which has been done by tlie author in compiling and in original research, and 
the profession should extend its thanks to Mr. Stetefeldt for his successful effort 
' to fill up a gap in metallurgical literature.' " 

Prof. Bruno Kerl, in a review of this book which he prepared for the Berg- und 
Huettenmaennische Zeitting, of Berlin, says: "All the defects of the old process 
have been overcome by the Russell process as described by Mr. Stetefeldt in his 
book, which fills a real gap in metallurgical literature. . . . Its translation 
into German would be a very desirable addition to our literature." 

John Heard, Jr., Mining Engineer, writes: 

"This treatise is the vinst valuable— indeed the only valuable — one on lixivia- 
tion. The amount of careful, intelligent, original and compiled research is enor- 
mous ; the tables and drawings must be invaluable and, indeed, indispensable to any 
manager of a lixiviation plant, and the figures there recorded are more convincing 
arguments as to the value and range of lixiviation as a method of extracting silver 
from certain ores than the author's dogmatic deductions. 



SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

27 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. ]X 



Middlesex County, 
Suffolk. 



THE GRIFFIN MILL 

vs. 

THE FEETILIZER M'F'ES. 

■rZZX: G Im .A^ X. TS/L 



J 



1st. That the Griffin Mill is the latest and best mill manufactured 
for pulveriziuK all hard or refractory substances. 

2d. That it will do its work more satisfactorily, with less wear 
and at less expenditure of power than any other mill, requiring less 
than 20 horse power 

3d. I'hat it will grind to an even degree of fineness, with direct 
delivery and without tailinas. 

4th. That it is being used by leading fertilizer manufacturers 
with positive success. 

5th. That the mill is simple in construction, with no exposed jour- 
nals, and with very little wearing surface. 



Tims X3 TT* X 33 X3 3Nr C 3B 

ippoo Mills, C 

October 2i, 1891 



Wappoo Mills, Ch - rlkston. S. C, \ 



Bradley Fertilixer Co. : 

We have put in the finer of the two sets of screens sent u^, and 
with sun-dried rock are getting out at the rate of IB^ tons in ten 
hours. H. B. Jennings, 

Superintendent. 

Alexandria, Va., \ 
OctoDer 24, 1891. / 
Dear Sirs : We have received a great deal of satisf action from 
our ivlill ; it requires little or no attention, goes right along, does its 
work, and does it nicely. We are. 
Yours respectfully. 
(Signed) alexanuria Fertilizer and Chemical Co. 

88 Wall Street, New York. 
Dear Sirs : It gives me much pleasure to be able to say that, 
since we erected the two mills bought of you some eignt months 
ago, they have done excellent work, and to our entire satisfaction. 
The power required to run them is very small, not over 20 horse 
each The repairs are very small and easily ettected. Each mill 
will easily turn out 30 tons in a run of 10 hou's, producing a product 
all of which will readily pa=s a 40 mesh screen, and 90 per cent, of it 
will pass through a 60-mesh screen. We feel safe in saying you 
have in this mill very decidedly the best mill on the market, aad it 
will, without doubt, supersede all others. 

ItEAD Fertilizer Co., 
Clement Read, Tr^as. and Mangr, 

Cleveland, October 22, 1891. 
Gentlemen : We are at present pulverizing a trifle over two tons 
per hour through a 180-mesh wire. It requires only about 16 horse 
power, and so far the wear and tear has been very sligh , not over 
two cents per ton. We consider this a very good showing, as our 
material is tough and bard. We can heartily recommend it to any- 
body 1 equiring such a machine. We are. 
Respectfully yours, 
(Signed) Thk Ohio Metallic Co., 

F. J. Drake, Secy, and Treas. 

That the Bradley Fertilizer Company has six of these Mills in 
constant use at their Weymouth factories, and are prepared to dem- 
onstrate to any one by practical tests that it pulverizes phosphate 
rock to the best condition for fertilizing pui poses. 



•r^OES "^r 13 H. 33 I C T 



That by reason of the above, and much other testimony, the Court 
decides that the claimant's aflirmations are true, and that the Court 
therei^ore recommends that every manufacturer of fertilizers send 
at once to the Bradley Fertilizer Company, 27 Kilby Street, Boston^ 
for their full descriptive, ill strated circulars of these Mills. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



BASIC BESSEMER PROCESS 

By Dr. H. WEDDING. 



The Scient'fic Publishing Company has secured the rights 
of publication in the United States of a translation of this, the 
acknowledged authoritative work on the Basic Bessemer or Thomas 
Process, which is now for the first time placed before American 
metallurgists. 

Translated from the German by 

WILLIAM B. PHILLIPS, Ph. d., 

Professor of Chemistry and Metallurgy in the University 
of Alabama, 

and 

ERNST PROCHASKA, Met. e., 

Late Engineer at the Basic Steel Works, Teplitz, Bohemia, and at 
the Works of the Pottstown Iron Co., Pottstown, Pa. 

With supplementary chapter on Dephosphorization in the 
Basic Open Hearth Furnace, by Ernst Prochaska. 



The Standard Work, and the Only Book in English 
on this Subject. 



Bound in Cloth. Profusely Illustrated. Price $3.50. 



THE SOIENTIFIO PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

27 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



xr 



ESTABLISHED 1866. 



INCORPORATED 1888. 



HENRY HEIL CHEMICAL CO., 

208-212 South Fourth St., St. Louis, Mo., 

MANUFACTURERS AND IMPORT IRS OF 

CHEMICALS AND CHEMIC^LL APPARATUS, 

Crucibles, Scorifiers, Muffles, Furnaces and Supplies 

for Chemists, Mines, Smelters, Sampling 

Works and Stamp Mills. 

AGENTS FOR 

J. H. Munktell's Swedish Filtering Paper, The Denver Fire Clay 
Co.'s Crucibles, Muffles and other Manufactures. 

Battersea Crucibles, Muffles, Etc., 
Josef Kavaller's Unexcelled Bohemian Glassware, Etc. 

All and everything the Chemist and Assayer needs can be found at our estab- 
lishment. We guarantee best quality and lowest prices. Write for our Catalogue, 
-which is larger and more complete than any other, containing 3,000 illustrations. 

KIMER &> AMKND, 

NEW YORK, 

Have Always Made a Specialty of 

Sujiilies for Fertilizer Laboratories. 



KJELDAHL'S 

APPARATUS, 
COMBUSTION 

FURNACES, 
STANDARD 

GRADUATED 
APPARATUS, 
SCHLEICHER 
AND 
SCHUELL'S 
FILTER PAPER, 




BOHEMIAN 
COMBUSTION 
TUBING, 
PURE 

HAMMERED 
PLATINUM, 
ACCURATE 

BALANCES 
AND 
WEIGHTS. 



XII 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



THE METALLURGY OF STEE 



nnu 



HENRY M. HOWE. A.M., S.B. 



Royal Quarto, Handsomely Bound, Printed on Superfine 
Paper, and Profusely Illustrated. 



SECOND EDITION. 



Price, 



$10.00, 



This work is the most notable contribution to the literature of iron and 
steel metallurgy ever published. The series of papers on the subject which 
have appeared as supplements to the " Engineering and Mining Journal " 
during the past two years have attracted world-wide attention and have re- 
ceived the heartiest commendation from all quarters. The volume now 
published presents this material in much more convenient shape, with con- 
siderable additional matter, giving the results of the most recent research, 
experiment and practice. Mr. Howe also presents a complete review of all 
important conclusions reached by earlier investigators, and his masterly dis- 
cussion of them renders the work classic. Every statement and citation has 
been carefully weighed and verified and the references to the literature of 
the subject are given minutely, the book thus furnishing in itself a key to the 
whole range of steel metallurgy. It also furnishes the results of much new 
and original investigation, specially undertaken for the present work. 

Every metallurgist, every manufacturer of steel in any form, and all who 
are interested in the iron or steel industries, and all engineers who use iron or 
steel should have this standard work and cannot afford to be without it. 



The unprecedented demand exhausted the first edition in a feitf 
weeks. The second edition has been revised and enlarged. 



SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY. 

PUBLISHERS, 

27 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. XIII 




K ROM'S 

—PERFECTED STANDARD— 

Steel Rolls and 
Ore Breakers. 

Revolving Screens, 

Ore Feeders, Dry Kilns 
AND Concentrators. 

Plans for Lixiviation Concentrat- 
ing and Ore Crushing Works. 

S. R. KROM, 151 Cedar St., 
New York, U. S. A. 



MECKLENBURG IRON WORKS, 

CHARLOTTE, N. C, 

Washers for Phosphate Rock. 



CRUSHERS, ENGINES, BOILERS AND GENERAL MINING 
MACHINERY. 

RICHARDS & CO., 



LIMITED, 



importers and manufacturers of 

Chemicals, Assayers 



-j^i<nD- 



Chemists Supplies. 



NEW YORK : CHICAGO : NEWAKK, N. J. : 

41 Barclay Street. 1 12 and 1 14 Lake Street. 863 and 865 Broad Street. 



XIV ADVERTISEMENTS. 



MINING ACCIDENTS 



AND 



THEIR PREVENTION. 



BY SIR FREDERICK AUGUSTUS ABEL. 



With Discussion by Leading Experts. Also, the United 

States, British and Prussian Laws relating to 

the Working of Coal Mines. 

rrice, _ - - $4.00 in Cloth, 



Contents : 
Mining Accidents. By Sir Frederick A. Abel. With discussion by President 
Bruce, of the British Institute of Civil Engineers; and Prof. Arnold Lupton, C. 
Tylden Wright, Emerson Bainbridge, William Morgans, Sydney F. Walker, Col. 
Paget Mosley, Henry Hall, Col. J. D. Shakespear, Stephen Humble, Sir George 
Elliot, Sir Warington Smyth, A. R. Sawyer, A. Giles, R. Bedlington, Edward 
Combes, George Seymour, Henry Harries, William Cochrane, James Ashworth, J. 

B. Atkinson, W. N. Atkinson, Bennett H. Brough, T. Foster Brown, S. B. Coxon, 

C. Le Neve Foster, W. Galloway, Max Georgi, W. S. Gresley, J. A. Longdon, 
A. R. Sennett, M. H. N. Story Maskelyne, Arthur Sopwith, A, L. Steavenson, A. 
H. Stokes and others. 

List of safety appliances, with description of detachment of mineral from its 
bed, carriage of mineral to the surface, difficulties attendant on the presence of 
gases, etc. Safety lamps (oil and spirit), safety lamps (electric) and other appli- 
ances. 

The Mining Laws of Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Ken- 
tucky, Maryland, Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Washington, West Vir- 
ginia and Wyoming; also those of Great Britain and Prussia add a feature 
of great value— for these laws have never before been collected or published 
in accessible form. 

Of the unanimously favorable criticisms of this book, we have only space 
to quote one : 

" It is a work that should be in the hands of every intelligent man connected 
with a colliery, no matter what his position. It is as valuable to the intelligent 
miner as it is to the mining engineer or the colliery official." — Colliery Engineer. 



SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

27 PARK PLACE. NEW YORK. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



XV 



THE STURTEVANT MILL CO., 

88 MASON BUILDING, BOSTON, MASS., 

SOLE MANTTFACTtJRERS 

STURTKVANX MILL, 

For Crushing and Pulverizing "Phosphate Rock" and all Hard 

Material. Simple, Effective, Economical, Used and Endorsed 

BY MANY Prominent Fertilizer Manufacturers. 

ALSO ROCK EMERY MILLSTONES. 

Superior to the Best French Buhr-Stones. 

IF YOU WISH 



Any device for regulating steam, write to the MASON REGU- 
LATOR CO., of Boston, Mass. We also send, for 30 cents in 
stamps, our little booif, " Key to Steam Engineering," serviceable 
to anyone in charge of a steam plant. 

AIR COMPRESSORS. 




THE NORWALK IRON WORKS CO., 



Circulars. 



SOUTH NORWALK, CONN. 



XVI 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



ROBERT POOLE & SON CO., 

BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A. 



-^^ 



c^' 



sP" 



# 



..v^ 
o^ 



;^^ 



G^^ 



.^^' 



,^0- 




^4 



^^^ 



% 



'i? 



^^^ 



'^^% 
^^^ 



^^^. 



cr 



'Sj^ 



Op 



"^Ss 



^, 



o^^ 



MACHINERY FOR FERTILIZER FACTORIES, 

Improved Mixiiig Machiites. 

BAGGING OR SMITHERING MACHINES, 
F*hosf»hate: Rock crushkrs, 

CONVEYORS, ELEVATORS. 



^ 



<^ 



s^^ 



^ 



,^A^ 



^^^ 



.^S>' 



.-^6- 







SHAFTING, PULLEYS, HANGERS, ETC 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



XVTT 



XHE— 



BECKETT FOmRY&MACHINE CO., 

ARLINGTON, NEW JERSEY, 

Works and OflSce Adjoining Depot, 30 Minutes from New York via Erie Ry. 



-BUILDERS OF- 



ENGINES, CRUSHERS, 



-AND- 



Mining Machinery. 



SEND FOR CATALOGUE. 




XVIII 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 




AMEICAN 





EDWARD D. PETERS, Jr., m. e., m. d. 



No one who has a copy of the First Edition of this great work should 
fail to secure the Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 



Profusely Illustrated. Price $4.00. 



This is the Best Book on Copper Smelting in the language. 

It contains a record of practical experience, with directions how to build furnaces 
and how co overcome the various metallurgical difficulties met with in copper 
smeltiug. 

T.A.BLE! OIF O03SrTE32Sra?S. 

Chapter I.— Description of the Ores of Copper. 

Chapter II.— Distribution of the Ores of Copper. 
Chapter III.— Methods of lopper Assaying. 

Chapter IV.— The Roasting of Copper Ores in Lump Form. 
Chapter V.— Stall Roasting. 

Chapter VI. — The Roasting of Ores in Lump Form in Kilns. 
Chapter VII.— Calcination of Ore and Matte in Finely Divided Condition. 
Chapter VIII.— The Chemistry of the Calcining Process. 
Chapter IX.— The Smelting of Copper. 

Chapter X— Blast Furnaces Constructed of Brick. 

Chapter XI.— General Remarks on Blast Furnace Smelting. 
Chapter XII. — Late Improvements in Blast Furnaces. 
Chapter XIII —The Smelting of Pyritous Ores Containing Copper and NickeL 
Chapter XI V.— Reverberatory Furnaces. 

Chapter XV. — Refining Copper Gas in Sweden. 

Chapter XVI.- Treatment of Gold and Silver Bearing Copper Ores. 
Chapter XVII.— The Bessemerizing of Copper Mattes. 
General Index, Etc, 



THE SCIENTIFIC PTIBLISflIN& COMPANT, 

27 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



XIX 



THE LAWRENCE MACHINE COMPANY, 



Lawrence, Mass., 



MANUFACTURERS OF 




Centrifugal Pumps, Steam Engines 

AND GENERAL MACHINERY. 

SEND FOR CATALOGUE " C " AND DISCOUNTS, 

PAUL C. TRENHOLM, 



-BROKER IN- 



P HOSPHATE ]^ OCK 



Brimstone, Chemicals, Fertilizers, etc., 



ALSO RICK. 



Charlkston, S. C. 



XX ADVERT [SEMENTS. 



THE UNANIMOUS OPINION 

OF THE BEST CRITICAL JUDGMENT OF THE WORLD IS THAT 

THIS WORK IS THE 

MASTEKPIECE OF LITERARY, ARTISTIC AND TYPOGRAPHICAL ART. 



GEMS 



AND 



PRECIOUS STONES 



OF 



NORTH AMERICA 



A POPULAR DESCRIPTION 

OF THEIR OCCURRENCE, VALUE, HISTORY, 
ARCHEOLOGY, AND OF THE COLLECTIONS IN 
WHICH THEY EXIST, ALSO A CHAPTER ON 
PEARLS AND ON REMARKABLE FOREIGN GEMS 
OWNED IN THE UNITED STATES .... 



ILLUSTRATED 

WITH EIGHT COLORED PLATES AND NUMEROUS 
MINOR ENGRAVINGS 



BY 

GEORGE FREDERIC KUNZ, 

Gem Expert vith Messrs. Tiffany &" Co , special agent of the 
United States Geological Survey and nf the Eleventh United States 
Census, member of the Mineralogical Society of Great Britain 
and Ireland, the Imperial Mineralogical Society of St. Petersburg, 
the Societe Francaise de Mineralogie, etc. 



Price, - - $10.00 
SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

27 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. 



XXI 



PULVERIZING 



Forty of the most successful Fertilizer manufacturers of 

the United States use Frisbee-Lucop MUls. 

Their example should be followed. 




STANDARD SCREEN FRISBEE-LUCOP 



E. Frank Coe. ) 

Manufacturer of Standard Fertilizers, L 
16 Burlmg Slip. 
New York, October 13, 1891. 

TheFrisbee-LtjcopMillCo.: ^^^n.,- 

GENTLEMEN : We have been using your -^'^ ^-^^^ 
ively since 1885, and are as well satisfied with them as 
ever The cost per ton for .rindin. rock has been very 
l-Z. I consider them one of the best mills m the 

'^^'^''- yours truly, E. Frank Coe, 

Julian D. Fairchild. 

FRISBEE-LUCOP MILL COMPANY, 

^^SrSicratd SrSnds' of ores and Metal- 
lurgical Products. Capacity up to 3 
Tons per hour, finished product, no 
tailings. Records of seven 
years' continuous use. 

OFFICE: 145 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, U. S. A. 



XXII 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



CHEMICAL AND (IIOLDGICAL 



KSSAYS 



BY 



THOMAS STERRY HUNT, m. ^., ll. r>.. 

Author of " Mineral Physiology and Physiography,' "A New Basis 

for Chemistry," " Systematic Minerflogy," and 

" Chemistry of the World." 



FOURTH EDITION. 



REVISED AND ENLARGED. 



:pe,ice, S2.50_ 



T^^BLE OI<^ CONTENTS. 





Preface ; 


XII. 


I. 


Theory of Igneous Rocks and Vol 






canoes ; 


XIII. 


II. 


Some Points in Chemical Geology ; 




III. 


The Chemistry of Metamorphic 






Rocks; 


XIV. 


IV. 


The Chemistry of the Primeval 
Earth ; 


XV. 


V. 


The Origin of Mountains; 


XVI. 


VI. 


The Probable Seat of Vocanic 






Action ; 


XVII. 


VII. 


On Some Points in Dynamical 
Geology; 




Till. 


On Limestone, Dolomites and 
Gypsums; 


XVIII. 


IX. 


The Chemistry of Natural Waters ; 


XIX. 


X. 


Petroleum, Asphalt, Pyroschists 






and Coal ; 


XX. 


XI. 


Granites and Granitic Vein 
stones; 





The Origin of Metalliferous De- 
posits; 

The Geognosy of the Appala- 
chians and the Origin of Crys- 
talline Rocks; 

The Geology of the Alps; 

History of the Names Cambrian 
and Silurian in Geology ; 

Theory of Chemical Changes and 
Equivalent Volumes; 

The Constitution and Equiva- 
lent Volume of Mineral 
Species; 

Thoughts on Solution and the 
Chemical Process; 

On the Objects and Method of 
Mineralog.y; 

The Theory of Types in Chem- 
istry. 

Appendix and Index. 



THE SOIENTIFIO PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

:e»tjblisi3:ees, 
27 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. 



ADVERTISE M ENTS. 



XXIII 




A CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY 



BY 



THOMAS STERRY HUNT, m.a., ll. d., 

Author of "Chemical and Geological Essays," "Mineral Physiology 

and Physiography," " Systematic Mineralogy," and 

" Chemistry of the World." 



THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND AUGMENTED, WITH NEW PREFACE. 



r>RICE, S2.00. 



TA^BLE OF C01SrTE]S"TS. 



I. Introduction. 
II. Nature of the Chemical Process. 
III. Genesis of the Chemical Ele 
ments. 
IV Gases, Liquids and Solids, 
V. The Law of Numbers. 
VI. Eqtiivalent Weights. 
VII. Hardness and Chemi- 
cal IndifTerence. 



VITI. The Atomic Hypothesis. 
IX. Tne Law of Volumes. 
X. Metamorphosis in Chemistry. 
XI. The Law of Densities. 
XII. Historical Retrospect. 
XIII. Conclusions. 
XIV. Supplement. 
Appendix and Index. 



THE SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

27 PARK PLACE. NEW YORK. 



XXIV ADVERTISEMENTS. 



MINERAL 




A SECOND SERIES OF 

CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL ESSAYS, 

WITH 

A GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 

BY 

THOMAS STERRY HUNT, m. a., lt.. i>. 

Author of " Chemical and Geological Essays," " A New Basis for 

Chemistry," "Systematic Mineralogy," and 

" The Chemistry of a World." 



SECOND EDITION. REVISED AND ENLARGED. 

PRICE, $5.00. 



T^BLE 0:F COITTEnSTTS. 

Preface. 

Chapter I —Nature in Thought and Language. 

Uhapter 11.— The Order of the Natural Sciences. 

Chapter 111.— Chemical and Geological Relations of the Atmosphere. 
Chapter IV. — Celestial Chemistry from the Time of Newton. 
Chapter V.— The Origin of Crystnlline Rocks. 

Chapter VI.— The Genetic History of Crystalline Rocks. 
Chapter VII.— The Decay of Crystalline Rocks. 
Chapter VIII.— A Natural System in Mineralogy, with a Classilicatioa of Silicates. 
Chapter IX.— History of Pre-Cambrian Rocks. 

Chapter X.— The Geological History of Serpentine, with Studies of Pre- 
Cambrian Rocks. 
Chapter XI —The Taconic Question in Geology. 
Appendix and Index. 



THE SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

27 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



XXV 



SYSTEMATIC MINERALOGY 



BASED ON A 

NATURAL CLASSIFICATION. 

WITH A GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 

3Y 

THOMAS STERRY HUNT, m.a., ll.d., 

Author of " Chemical and Geological Essays." "Mineral Physiology and 

Physiography." "A New Basis for Chemistry," 

and " The Chemistiy of a World. ' 



BOUND IN CLOTH. PRICE $5.00. 



The aim of the author in the pre.sent treatise has been to reconcile the 
rival and hitherto opposed Chemical and Natural History methods in Min- 
eralogy, and to constitute a new system of classification, which is " at the 
same time Chemical and Natural Historical," or, in the words of the preface, 
" to observe a strict conformity to chemical principles, and at the same time 
to retain all that is valuable in the Natural History method ; the two 
opposing schools being reconciled by showing that when rightly under- 
stood, chemical and phy.'^ical characters are really dependent on each other, 
and present two aspects of the same problem which can never be solved but 
by the consideration of both." He has, moreover, devised and adopted a 
Latin nomenclature and arranged the mineral kingdom in classes, orders, 
genera and species, the designations of the latter being binomial. 



TA.BLE OF CONTENTS. 



Chapter I. The Relations of Mineraloery ; 
II. Mmeralogical Systems; 
III. First Principles in Chemis- 
try; 
Chemical Elements and No- 
tation; 
Specific Gravity; 
The Coefficient of IVlineral 

Condensation; 
The Theory of Soluiion; 
Relations of Condensation to 
Hardness and ln=olubility; 
Crystallization and its Rela 
tions ; 



IV. 



V. 
VI. 



VII. 
VIII. 



IX. 



Chapter X. The Constitution of Mineral 
Species ; 
XI. A New Mineralogical Classi- 
ticatioii ; 
XII. Mineralogical Nomencla 
tare; 

XIII. Synopsis of Mineral Species; 

XIV. The Metallaceous Class; 
XV. The Halidaceous Class. 

XVI. The Oxydaceous Class; 
XVII. The Pyricaustaceous Class; 
XVIII. Mineral History of Waters; 
General Index; 
Index of Names of Minerals. 



THE SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

27 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. 



XXVI ADVERTISEMENTS. 



HAVE m EVER STOPPED TO THIE 

How much time and money is lost by not having the 

best books on the special subjects you 

are interested in ? 

Those desiring to investigate any scientific or technical subject can learn the 
sources of information on the same by writing to 

THE SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY. 

Their Elaborate Classified Catalogues of Scientific and Technical Books will be 
found invaluable to those engaged in Mining, Metallurgy, Geology. General Engi- 
neering, Mechanics. Chemistry, Electricity, Surveying, Railroading, and kindred 
pciences. Will be forwarded, postage free, on application. 



SPECIAL NOTICE TO AUTHORS 

WHO HAVE GOOD BOOKS TO PUBLISH. 

Scientific discovery and improvements in practice are nr.w so rapid 
that in a few years a large proportion of what are now standard works 
will become obsolete. As modern methods supersede the older, so modern 
works on each subject ai e constantly required. The advantages which 
the Scientific Publishing Company possessesforbringingnut and making 
known the books deemed by it wortby of publication are altogether 
exceptional. The mere fact that these Publishers have brought out a 
new Dook on any subject, being universally accepted as a guarantee that 
the work has merit, overcomes the disadvantages which new authors 
labor under in getting their books before the world. The only require- 
ment the Scientific Publishing Company msists on is that the book shall 
be THE BEST on its subject, and the standing and reputation of a new 
author are established by the mere fact that the Scientific Publishing 
Company publishes his book. 

The high character of the new works already published, their spon- 
taneous recognition, enthusiastic reception and large sales attest ) he fact 
that ihe course the Scientific Publishing Companv is pursuing has met 
with approval among professional men and stu«entp. Other equally 
important works are now in preparation. 






1^ SPECIAL DISCOUNTS GIVEN to Libraries, Educa- 
tional Institutions, and on Important Cash Orders. -^ 

ANY PUBLICATION. EITHER SCIENTIFIC OR GENERAL IN 

CHARACTER CAN BE SUPPLIED. SEND YOUR 

ORDERS FOR BOOKS AND MAGAZINES TO 

THE SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

27 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. 



'U 







'^. -: % .\ 






' ^r^:A 



HI 



rt 















" ,' ,■' < ' "^ "1 ■,» • »' • ' r ■ 



■'•^^-" -'1!^I-, 






rf«^" 'i 










, -*♦. 



^^V.f' / 



•-'■^•^.,'^> 






',*" 

.^-: 



4:^ 






'^ 

:;!>;%' 



"♦V 



-.-■)■••"*■■< 
v-'-v*" ■"'■'■4 ■.•'■'" M 



vii>\^ AiC v\ \>« \ '^ 



' f \ • ' 



^^A"^-^ 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



W%|^^ 






V \ v^' 









\\ \ 







\ ^siS- 



^1 




^ \V^ -^tvA. viA. 






